Cultural diversity and language education Essay

Cultural diversity and language education - Essay Example Ð fter 21/2 yeÐ °rs of immersing myself in SpÐ °nish through study Ð °nd trÐ °vel to Mexico Ð °nd GuÐ °temÐ °lÐ °, I grÐ °duÐ °ted with Ð ° minor in SpÐ °nish. SpÐ °nish cÐ °me very eÐ °sily to me becÐ °use of Ð °ll the French I hÐ °d tÐ °ken Ð °nd my strong desire to leÐ °rn the lÐ °nguÐ °ge. Ð fter college, I trÐ °veled for Ð ° yeÐ °r in South Ð mericÐ °, where I both reinforced my SpÐ °nish Ð °nd Ð °lso picked up Portuguese while visiting BrÐ °zil. When I returned from South Ð mericÐ ° I wÐ °s unsure whÐ °t I wÐ °nted to do, so I enrolled in Ð ° bilinguÐ °l teÐ °cher educÐ °tion progrÐ °m sponsored by Title VII. Ð  yeÐ °r of student teÐ °ching Ð °nd bilinguÐ °l methods courses certified me Ð °s Ð ° bilinguÐ °l teÐ °cher. I becÐ °me Ð ° bilinguÐ °l teÐ °cher out of my love for SpÐ °nish. I see the process of becoming bilinguÐ °l Ð °s Ð ° lifelong journey, one in which I Ð °m still involved. When I stÐ °rted teÐ °ching, I hÐ °d no ideÐ ° thÐ °t bilinguÐ °l teÐ °ching wÐ °s so controversiÐ °l, stigmÐ °tized, Ð °nd complex. For 6 yeÐ °rs, I struggled Ð °s Ð ° SpÐ °nish-English bilinguÐ °l elementÐ °ry school teÐ °cher in OÐ °klÐ °nd, CÐ °liforniÐ °. PÐ °rt of this struggle wÐ °s cÐ °used by lÐ °ck of support from my principÐ °l Ð °nd colleÐ °gues, who did not understÐ °nd the purposes of whÐ °t is needed to develop bilinguÐ °lism. During thÐ °t time, I obtÐ °ined Ð ° mÐ °sters degree in curriculum Ð °nd bilinguÐ °l educÐ °tion. Ð t the clÐ °ssroom level, despite my teÐ °cher trÐ °ining Ð °nd mÐ °sters degree, I still fÐ °ced dÐ °ily dilemmÐ °s such Ð °s, "WhÐ °t should I do with 30 kids whose lÐ °nguÐ °ge dominÐ °nce vÐ °ries from SpÐ °nish to English Ð °nd Ð °ll the shÐ °des in between?" "WhÐ °t kind of curriculum should I use for OmÐ °r, who hÐ °s just come from Mexico to my fourth-grÐ °de clÐ °ss Ð °nd doesnt know how to hold Ð ° pencil becÐ °use he hÐ °s never gone to school before?" "How do I work with Guillermo, who is very bright, fully

United States Declaration of Independence Essay Example for Free

United States Declaration of Independence Essay In contemplating the relation of freedom and identity, the Latin maxim libertas non datur sine veritate aptly reminds us that there can be no freedom without truth. While certain aspects of who we are, such as nationality or ethnic ancestry, may be cul? turally or serendipitously determined, there is a truth to hu? man nature which, if not observed, corrupts or destroys life and any exercise of freedom dependent upon it. Human nature and the natural law it reflects are inescapable, and, insofar as the Constitution of the United States was consciously fashioned with an outline of human nature in mind, natural law is an in? dispensable aid to proper constitutional interpretation. This essay explores the founding conception of liberty and its interrelationship with human nature. It then addresses how the Constitution reflects these aspects of human nature. Finally, it contains some concluding perspectives on aspects of human nature understated in the constitutional design and what ought to be done when there are disputing conceptions of human na? ture. I. LIBERTY The founding view of liberty was taken up directly by Ham? ilton. In Federalist 15, Hamilton asks â€Å"why,† if man1 is naturally * Caruso Family Chair and Professor of Constitutional Law, Pepperdine Uni? versity; Dean and St. Thomas More Professor, The Catholic University of America Columbus School of Law, 2001–2003; Professor and Director of the Center on Law Government at the University of Notre Dame, 1980–1999; Assistant Attorney General and Head of the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice, 1985– 1989. 1. The use of the masculine in this essay is intended to include the feminine; the masculine usage is continued in the essay so as not to raise in the mind of the reader any inference that the thoughts expressed are somehow at odds with the quoted material from the founding period, which reflected a different custom in 34 Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy [Vol. 29 free,2 â€Å"has government been instituted at all? †3 Hamilton’s an? swer is blunt and rests squarely on a claim about human na? ture. Government is instituted, Hamilton asserts, â€Å"[b]ecause the passions of men will not conform to the dictates of reason and justice without constraint. †4 Liberty without restraint will not lead to private or public good. How does Hamilton know this? Well, he says, just look around; and further, if the evidence of our own eyes does not convince us and we seek something beyond this empirical claim, he urges us to draw yet another inference about human nature: It is to be expected that men in a collective or group will act badly because the â€Å"[r]egard to reputation has a less ac? tive influence. †5 Think about it, Hamilton admonishes: Liberty will be badly used if joining together obscures accountability. Moreover, â€Å"a spirit of faction† will aggravate these intrinsic human aspects, thereby magnifying the resulting harms. 6 In a group, we will ally with others of like mind in a shameless way to disadvantage or harm others. We will be inclined to use our liberty to pursue â€Å"improprieties and excesses, for which [we] would blush in a private capacity. †7 The desire for liberty to be well used, once â€Å"we the people† were united in political society, greatly motivated the Foun? ders. It will be argued below that this founding conception of liberty informed by human nature accounts for much of the constitutional structure and the express limitations upon gov? ernment power within and appended to it. The justification for the new Constitution is forthrightly anchored in the mainte? nance of human nature as the â€Å"great principle of self? preservation. †8 As such, the precondition for liberty to be used well is honoring the core principle of preserving the truth of oneself—a proposition traceable, as Federalist 43 expressly af? using the masculine pronoun alone, but which this author believes is applicable to all persons without gender distinction. 2. Note that any other presupposition is counterfactual, except to extreme be? haviorists. See, e. g. , Thomas Szasz, Against Behaviorism: A Review of B. F. Skinner’s About Behaviorism, 5 PSYCHOL. NOTES (1991), available at http://www.libertarian. co. uk/lapubs/psycn/psycn005. pdf. 3. THE FEDERALIST NO. 15, at 110 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed. , 1961). 4. Id. 5. Id. at 111. 6. Id. 7. Id. 8. THE FEDERALIST NO. 43 (James Madison), supra note 3, at 279. No. 1] The Human Nature of Freedom and Identity 35 firms, to â€Å"the transcendent law of Nature and of Nature’s God† upon which the nation is founded and all human action de? pends. 9 The question whether identity is a limitation or starting point for freedom may be a puzzler for twenty?first century man, but it is an easier question when tossed the way of Pub? lius. The authors of The Federalist Papers knew human nature or identity to be the starting point for human freedom or liberty. II. HUMAN NATURE What is the law of nature? An early twentieth century lec? turer put matters nicely: Every living creature is the embodiment of some form of natural law. Its duration of life depends upon its obedience to the law of its nature, as embodied in its organism. It lives by being itself, by persisting in being itself, and when it vio?lates the law of the kind of being it is, it renounces life and perishes . . . . All animated beings are subject to the laws of cause and effect, as Nature has prescribed them for each species . . . . [I]n any complex organization, like human soci? ety, something must be freely granted to the individual. This is what we mean politically by â€Å"liberty. † On the other hand, something must be insisted upon for the benefit of the group. This is what we mean by â€Å"law,† in its social sense . . .. Without liberty, there is no initiative, and hence no progress. Without law, there is no survival of the group. 10 It is within the will of man to have positive law either ad? vance human nature or undermine it. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that the constructed, positive law of soci? ety can disregard the law of nature without consequence. We can construct governments and other social structures beyond our individual natures, but these perform well only if nature’s truths are observed. â€Å"What we must never forget is that Nature never ceases to govern; and that, if men wish to govern, they must govern under Nature’s Laws, or they will be doomed to failure. †11 9. Id. 10. DAVID JAYNE HILL, HUMAN NATURE IN THE CONSTITUTION 24–25 (1926). 11. Id. at 29. 36 A. Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy [Vol. 29 Human Liberty or â€Å"Right† Derived from Assumed Duty The founding generation was studied in the dismal history of societies that sought the false freedom of governing against human nature. If one begins the history of human government with the patriarchal clan, one sees force, but little acknowl? edgment of human liberty or freedom. 12 As the clan gave way to various forms of warrior chiefs and kingships, there was a natural mindfulness of the well? being of one’s group. Several thousand years before Christ, Hammurabi’s famous legal code would describe the clan leader as a shepherd chosen â€Å"to care for the people [and cause them] to dwell in peace and security, that the great should not oppress the weak. †13 The Greeks would give a name to these assumed natural duties of care, and these in turn would later become encapsulated into the notion of rights or liberties. Rights, therefore, arose as correlatives from the reasoned objection of man’s intellect when leaders defaulted on their expected duty of care and irrationally de? prived man of the necessary goods or sustenance to survive. Stoic philosophers like Cicero would bring this conception of human right or liberty derived from duty to Rome, but, with Rome’s fall, barbarian kings once again obscured the concept of natural rights. It would not re? emerge until the American Founders decided to build a government upon human nature and its associated rights. B. Affirmation of Creation as Source of Natural Right or Liberty â€Å"When . . . the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, [and] a decent respect to the opinions of mankind re? quires . . . .†:14 With these words, the Founders gave explana? tion not only for the formation of a new sovereignty, but also the human liberty the newly established United States sought to advance. It was an explanation premised upon the pro? claimed truth that man is not self? creation, but created. That the handiwork of the Creator came with a conscious endow? ment of unalienable rights—life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness—led to the conclusion that any governmental form 12. This is not to say that force within the clan was always contrary to human nature. 13. HILL, supra note 10, at 37 (quoting Hammurabi’s legal code from approximately 2250 B. C. ). 14. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE para. 1 (U. S. 1776). No. 1] The Human Nature of Freedom and Identity 37 that followed would need to have one overriding end: to secure human nature and the rights associated with it. There is much speculation as to why America in the late Eighteenth Century was the locus of natural law rediscovery. Possibly, it was the wide sweep of land, and nature, itself, that the colonists daily inhabited and sought to harness. Perhaps it was the extraordinary discoveries of the era in natural science. Or it may simply have been that no people so distant from their country of origin could rationally continue to think of them? selves as â€Å"subjects. † American colonists were persons enjoying natural liberty. However it was, â€Å"[t]he American colonists came upon this idea in their own way . . . . It was the result of their own experience in self? government, coupled with their faith that their human nature had a Divine origin and involved a moral responsibility of which freedom was a necessary corre? late. †15 If freedom, and the new government that aspired to it, were to be guided by human nature, then that nature would need to be understood. At a very basic level, giving proper attribution to a Creator put human nature off? limits to human redefini? tion16 and secured unalienable rights against the government,17 but a workable government would require some greater identi? 15. HILL, supra note 10, at 51–52. 16. Such attempted human redefinition of truth, unfortunately, is all too common. For instance, disputes abound over what legal protection to extend to an unborn child ever since Roe v. Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973), but the legal dispute has absolutely no effect on the truth of the child’s humanity. So too, any association of persons can be legally called a marriage, but such domination has no effect on the truth of what marriage is in terms of conjugal unity and procreative potential. Moreover, because legal assertions have no discernible power to redefine the natural essence of these matters, man ought not to seek to have positive law and nature work toward different ends. Justice James Wilson, who signed both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, sagely counseled that â€Å"law can never attain either the extent or the elevation of a science, unless it be raised upon the science of man. † JAMES WILSON, Man as an Individual—Abstractly Treated, in 1 THE WORKS OF JAMES WILSON 206, 207 (James DeWitt Andrews ed. , 1896). It was obvious in the 1850s that black men and women were human. Nonetheless, the law pointedly chose to treat them inhumanly. The bloody consequences of the law’s impertinence in ignoring human nature are etched in history. 17. See Thomas L. Pangle, The Philosophic Understandings of Human Nature Informing the Constitution, in CONFRONTING THE CONSTITUTION 9, 74 (Allan Bloom ed. , 1990) (â€Å"This means . . . while the majority retains supreme political power, it does not retain and never had unlimited power. The supreme (irresistible) power governing every rational person’s behavior is the desire for self? preservation and every individual retains the inalienable right to resist perceived threats to his property and existence, no matter what the source of those threats. †). 38 Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy [Vol. 29 fication of the particulars of human nature. A few of these par? ticulars are explored below. III. MAN IS FREE, BUT NOT APART FROM OR ABOVE, SOCIETY In the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, it was under? stood that man was not intended to live alone, but in society. Of course, part of this sociability was a product of pure neces? sity. â€Å"From his beginning [man] was born into [society], and without it he could never have been. Helpless in his isolation, he could be exterminated even by swarms of insects. †18 But the yearning for community was more than a utilitarian means of defense against predatory animals or other threats to physical existence. The Founders read Aristotle and accepted his propo? sition that â€Å"man is by nature a political animal . . . . There is . . . a natural impulse in all men towards an association [with others]. †19 This natural desire, according to Aristotle, arose from two sources: reasoned reflection on right and wrong (which is only a comprehensible exercise in relation to others) and our love of others. 20 A. Jefferson: Man Has a Moral Sense Developed Out of Service to Others Thomas Jefferson most notably made reference to man’s so? cial side, observing in correspondence to John Adams that man is â€Å"an animal destined to live in society. †21 For this reason, Jef? ferson would deliberately criticize the anti? social, atomistic conceptions of Hobbes as a â€Å"humiliation to human nature. †22 Thomas Pangle records that Jefferson had derived from the Enlightenment philosopher Helvetius that we experience pleasure â€Å"when we aid or even when we seem to sacrifice for others. †23 Jefferson was not fully satisfied that Helvetius had explained the origin of the pleasure derived from the service to 18. HILL, supra note 10, at 17. 19. ARISTOTLE, THE POLITICS 10–11 (Ernest Barker trans. , 1995). 20. Id. at 106. 21. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to John Adams (Oct. 14, 1816), in 2 THE ADAMS? JEFFERSON LETTERS 492 (Lester J. Cappon ed. , 1959). 22. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Frances Gilmer (June 7, 1816), in THE WRITINGS OF THOMAS JEFFERSON 24 (Albert Ellery Bergh ed., 1905). 23. THOMAS L. PANGLE, THE SPIRIT OF MODERN REPUBLICANISM: THE MORAL VISION OF THE AMERICAN FOUNDERS AND THE PHILOSOPHY OF LOCKE 120 (1988). No. 1] The Human Nature of Freedom and Identity 39 others and was unprepared to ascribe the origin of man’s moral sense solely to God since that would leave unaccounted for the moral sense or like sensation in a disbeliever. Therefore, on a philosophical level, Jefferson would conclude that, like other aspects of the moral sense in man, nature simply reveals the pleasure of service. 24 As he grew older, Jefferson would come to value tranquility over continued public service,25 but he would continue to lean upon the theorem that the pursuit of happi? ness was dependent upon the virtue of knowing oneself and being useful to others. The â€Å"moral instinct† that inclines us to do good out of a love of others is, Jefferson would conclude, â€Å"the brightest gem with which the human character is studded, and the want of it as more degrading than the most hideous of bodily deformities. †26 B. Wilson: Man Has Moral Sense Because He Has an Innate Conscience James Wilson would question Jefferson’s reliance upon the pleasure or utility of serving others as a sufficiently reliable ba? sis for the development of a moral sense. Unlike Jefferson, Wil? son would insist that human nature intrinsically includes not only a desire to be social and socially useful, but also a con? science. 27 Relying upon Thomas Aquinas by way of Richard Hooker, Wilson would insist that it is conscience that guides reason. 28 The first principles of virtue are self? evident to man, and, were it otherwise, most men would find the pursuit of vir? tue to be impossible and beyond their capacity. Wilson’s attachment to innate conscience contrasts with John Locke, who, in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, opines that not even the Golden Rule is innately known. Locke is often quoted in a way that makes his writing seem highly relativistic, and certainly the statement, â€Å"[c]onscience . . . is noth? ing else, but our own Opinion,† seems to be just that. 29 Locke was obviously a stronger influence on Jefferson than on Wil? 24. See id. 25. Pangle quotes Jefferson as advising a young James Monroe that â€Å"public service and private misery [are] inseparably linked together. † Id. at 121. 26. Id. at 120. 27. Id. at 121–22. 28. JAMES WILSON, Of the General Principles of Law and Obligation, in SELECTED POLITICAL ESSAYS OF JAMES WILSON 215, 222–24 (Randolph G. Adams ed. , 1930). 29. JOHN LOCKE, AN ESSAY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING 70 (Peter H. Nidditch ed., 1975) (1689). 40 Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy [Vol. 29 son, as Locke’s denial of conscience as innate fits nicely with Jefferson’s proposition that men always inquire further to seek an underlying reason for a moral rule. 30 For Jefferson again, it was the utility of service that brought happiness, not following an inner voice guided by an objective, knowable virtue. Locke would similarly write that â€Å"[p]ower and riches, nay Vertue [sic] it self, are valued only as Conducing to our Happiness. †31 C. Man’s Created Nature Bridges Jefferson and Wilson But Jefferson (and Locke) may not be as far from Wilson as it first would seem. What unifies them is reference to the tran? scendent. All three concede that acknowledgment of a Creator influences man’s moral sense. Locke makes repeated reference to man’s creation, and Jefferson’s â€Å"endowed by their Creator† reference in the Declaration is well known. Nevertheless, Jef? ferson is sometimes described as a â€Å"materialist,† a term he bor?rowed from Locke, or often as a â€Å"deist. † These terms obscure more than they clarify because it was Jefferson’s concession of a Creator God that had real consequence for filling out his con? ception of human nature. As Father John Hardon, S. J. , wrote in apprising the so? called Jefferson Bible, the Life and Morals of Je? sus of Nazareth: That Jefferson believed in God is evident first from his ready acceptance of the teachings of Christ on the subject, the Lord’s Prayer, the Eight Beatitudes, the Parables of the Un?just Steward and the Ten Talents, the Sermon on the Mount—all of which presuppose a belief in the existence of God, the Creator of heaven and earth. Correlative with this goes the belief in prayer and some kind of Providence, and to that extent, at least, an acceptance of some kind of grace, requested for example in the petition, â€Å"Deliver us from evil,† in the Pater Noster. Also the Morals of Jesus allows us to conclude that Jeffer? son believed in some sort of future life, where the good are rewarded and the wicked punished. Besides the Parables of Lazarus and Dives, of the Pharisee and Publican, and the Wedding Feast, Jefferson accepted and extracted the whole discourse of Christ about the Day of Judgment, in the twenty? fifth chapter of Matthew, not excluding the classic 30. See id. at 65. 31. John Locke, Some Thoughts Concerning Education, in THE EDUCATIONAL WRITINGS OF JOHN LOCKE 109, 249 (James Axtell ed. , 1968). No. 1] The Human Nature of Freedom and Identity 41 verse 46, in which Christ foretells: â€Å"These will go into ever?lasting punishment, but the just into everlasting life. †32 What, then, of Jefferson’s self? description as a materialist in the Lockean sense? Hardon writes that it was not a denial of the spirituality of the human soul, but merely the humble con? fession that there is no human proof anchored solely in reason of the soul’s spiritual nature. 33 Hardon’s explanation is persua? sive. Even though Locke (and by extension Jefferson) was un? able to prove the imprint of a moral sense in man and questioned whether reason is naturally inclined toward seek?ing the good, as Aquinas taught, Locke nevertheless insisted on the existence of natural law, knowable only by means of the Divine creator and legislator. 34 By this, Locke meant that hu? man beings are the creation or â€Å"workmanship† of God; there? fore, they belong to God and are His property. From this declared status as created beings, a set of prescrip? tions under the natural law can be deduced. For example, the presupposition of creation allows man to deduce moral pre? cepts in support of â€Å"unalienable rights† derived out of his rela? tionship with a Creator? Owner and other created human beings. These moral precepts themselves then encourage habits of virtue, especially including Jefferson’s insight of service to others. Habits of virtue yield happiness. Disregard the presup? position of man as a created being, however, and think of man as his own self? creation living outside or above society, and the process would work in reverse: unhappiness resulting from practices of vice and self? interest unchecked by any moral sense derived from human nature. Without the public ac?knowledgment of man’s created nature, the derivation of moral sense would be impossible, because there would then be no 32. Fr. John A. Hardon, S. J. , The Jefferson Bible, AM. ECCLESIASTICAL REV. , June 1954, available at http://www. catholicculture. org/docs/doc_view. cfm? recnum? 6040. 33. See id. John Locke writes, â€Å"we do not owe our origin to ourselves . . . .† JOHN LOCKE, QUESTIONS CONCERNING THE LAW OF NATURE 161 (Robert Horowitz et al. trans. , Cornell Univ. Press 1990) (1664). Locke was sure that this is not a religious doctrine, even as such doctrines may confirm â€Å"the truth of our argument that man can, by making use of sense and reason together, arrive at knowledge of some su? preme power . . . .† Id. at 165. Locke admitted that reason may prompt some to doubt God’s existence, but he said â€Å"there exists nowhere a race so barbarous, so far removed from all humanity† that is not suited to â€Å"infer from sensible things that there exists some powerful and wise being who has jurisdiction and power over men themselves. † Id. at 165, 167. 34. See Michael P. Zuckert, Do Natural Rights Derive from Natural Law? , 20 HARV. J. L. PUB. POL’Y 695, 721 (1997). 42 Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy [Vol. 29 stable conception of human nature. Human nature would, of course, be factually constant, but insofar as it would be subject to legal redefinition by those in the possession of force, it would not yield moral clarity for public or private decision. Of course, man is not assured of happiness merely by public acknowledgment of his created nature. When man enacts laws or undertakes personal action in defiance of that created na?ture, he is acting in a way that is contrary to a state of happi? ness. For this reason, if a government of law is to be successful, it must be formed to meet the reality of man’s nature: a reality which recognizes both man’s created nobility and rebelling imperfection. Hence, Wilson insightfully comments: [G]overnment is the scaffolding of society: and if society could be built and kept entire without government, the scaf? folding might be thrown down, without the least inconven? ience or cause of regret. Government is, indeed, highly necessary .. . to a fallen state. Had man continued innocent, society, without the aids of government, would have shed its benign influence even over the bowers of Paradise. 35 he Founders believed man had not â€Å"continued innocent† T and so shaped American government to meet his shortcom? ings. IV. MAN’S IMPERFECT NOBILITY The seventeenth? to? eighteenth? century period out of which the Constitution emerged was, as Arthur O. Lovejoy records, a period of transition between the denigration of man and the celebration of his potential. 36 Theologians and religious writers reminded the Founders of man’s creation in the image and like? ness of God and man’s supernatural destiny, but one satire writer after another demonstrated that man, in action, failed regularly to live up to this nobility. These satires of the Seven? teenth Century were but the flowering of earlier writing. Father James Gillis writes: Shakespeare—the myriad? minded Shakespeare—probably knew man better than any other poet or dramatist or phi? losopher. Certainly he made a life study of man; he tracked 35. JAMES WILSON, Of the Study of Law in the United States, in SELECTED POLITICAL ESSAYS OF JAMES WILSON, supra note 28, at 210. 36. See ARTHUR O. LOVEJOY, REFLECTIONS ON HUMAN NATURE 20 (1961). No. 1] The Human Nature of Freedom and Identity 43 every emotion and mood and thought and passion of man to its secret lair in the human heart, dragged it out, incarnated it in man or woman, king, peasant, soldier, student, lover, clown, clothed it in ermine or fustian or in mourner’s weeds, and made it â€Å"strut and fret its hour upon the stage. † If ever a man revealed ourselves to ourselves, it was that all? But? omniscient Shakespeare. But even he was compelled in the end to confess that he couldn’t solve the riddle of man. Wit? ness the famous monologue, â€Å"[w]hat a piece of work is man! † continuing â€Å"how like an angel! † but concluding, â€Å"this quintessence of dust! †37 A. Man Rationalizes Himself as an Exception: The Self? Interest Problem Thirty years before the Declaration, the French writer Mar? quis de Vauvenargues noted how much we enjoy pointing out human defect, thinking we can somehow exempt ourselves from the same criticism. Vauvenargues lamented, â€Å"We are so presumptuous that we imagine we can separate our personal interest from that of humanity in general, and malign the hu? man race without implicating ourselves. †38 n response to this criticism, man would assert as a defense I his commitment to reason. However, one would have to cau? tiously wonder if â€Å"reason† was itself rationalization and self? deception. Man reaches a conclusion favoring passion over rea? son, then finds reasons to justify the passion and deceives him? self into thinking the reasons discovered were the cause for the initial decision. Again, satirists of the Seventeenth Century regularly pointed out that â€Å"[t]he passions always seek to justify themselves and persuade us insensibly that we have reason for following them. The gratification and pleasure to which they give rise in the mind which should be judging them, corrupt its judgment in their favor. †39 hese insights were best represented in the founding genera? T tion by John Adams. He observed that men tend to act first and think after. Men have a tendency to flatter themselves, and Ad? ams thought this self? deception was responsible for many ca? 37. JAMES M. GILLIS, THIS MYSTERIOUS HUMAN NATURE 5 (1956) (quoting WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, HAMLET act 2, sc. 2). 38. LOVEJOY, supra note 36, at 20 (citation omitted). 39. Id. at 26. 44 Harvard Journal of Law Public Policy [Vol. 29 lamities. 40 Caught up in the various political controversies of his day, Adams wondered why those against him sought to â€Å"blacken and discredit† his motives, rather than address under? lying issues. 41 This trait of human nature has not changed. 42 B. A Government to Bring Perfection from Imperfect Human Nature Richard Hooker had faithfully recorded the noble, but imper? fect, aspects of human nature: Laws politic, ordained for external order . . . are never framed as they should be, unless presuming the will of man to be inwardly obstinate, rebellious, and averse from all obedience unto the sacred laws of nature; in a word, unless presuming man to be in regard of his depraved mind little better than a wild beast, they do accordingly provide not? Withstanding so to frame his outward actions, that they be no hindrance unto the common good for which societies are instituted: unless they do this, they are not perfect. 43 et all was not lost. God had created a universe by counter? Y balancing the forces of physical science, as Newton explained, and man could likewise construct a successful polity by follow? ing His model. So the Constitution came to be, following this instruction of counterpoise or balance, reflected in the planets as well as literature. The Founders, already having declared their fidelity to â€Å"the Laws of Nature and Nature’s God,† pro? 40. See generally JOHN ADAMS, ON SELF? DELUSION, in 3 THE WORKS OF JOHN ADAMS, SECOND PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 432, 433–36 (Charles C. Little James Brown eds. 1851). 41. Id. at 436. 42. Why, for instance, did environmental groups seek to demonize then? Judge John Roberts as anti? environment because of his dissent in Rancho Viejo v. Norton, 334 F. 3d 1158 (D. C. Cir. 2003), rather than take up the jurisprudential difficulty that animated the Supreme Court decisions upon which preced.

Invisible Man Essay: Self-Identity in Invisible Man -- Invisible Man E

Self-Identity in Invisible Man      Ã‚  Ã‚   In the novel, Invisible Man, the main character carries around a briefcase throughout the entire story. All of the possessions that he carries in that briefcase are mementos from learning experiences. Throughout the novel, the Invisible Man is searching for his identity and later discovers that his identity is in those items. As the narrator is leaving Mary's house for the Brotherhood, he sees a Negro-doll bank in his room. He is angry that the doll is holding a sign that read, "Feed me." "For a second I stopped, feeling hate charging up within me, then dashed over and grabbed it, suddenly as enraged by the tolerance of lack of discrimination, or whatever, that allowed Mary to keep such a self-mocking image around" (Ellison 319). The shattering of the bank by the narrator symbolizes that he is rejecting the views of the "old Negro" and taking his own views on the subject. Part of his views is the conviction that colored people do not need to rely on whites for their survival. Often times one does not know his own viewpoint on a subject until he can reject one view. Another item that is stored in his briefcase is the broken chain link that Brother Tarp gave to him. "I neither wanted it nor knew what to do with it; although there was no question of keeping it if no other reason than that I felt that Brother Tarp's gesture in offering it was of some deeply felt significance which I was compelled to respect" (Ellison 389). Although the narrator does not want to keep the link, he feels compelled to do so because the chain gang is part of his heritage. One often feels that he can not ignore to his past, as does the Invisible Man. Even at the end of the novel when he is b... ... part of his true identity. Works Cited   Bone, Robert.   "Ralph Ellison and the Uses of Imagination."   Modern Black Novelists: A Collection of Critical Essays.   Ed. M. G. Cooke.   Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971.   45-63. Brennan, Timothy.   "Ellison and Ellison: The Solipsism of Invisible Man."   CLA Journal XXV (Dec 1981): 162-81. Ellison, Ralph.   Invisible Man.   New York: The Modern Library, 1994. Holland, Laurence B.   "Ellison in Black and White: Confession, Violence and Klein, Marcus.   "Ralph Ellison."   After Alienation: American Novels in Mid-Century.   Cleveland: World Pub., 1964.   71-146. Langman, F.H.   "Reconsidering Invisible Man."   The Critical Review.   18 (1976) 114-27. Lieber, Todd M.   "Ralph Ellison and the Metaphor of Invisibility in Black Literary Tradition."   American Quarterly.   Mar. 1972: 86-100.

Why We Are Lonely :: essays research papers

Intolerance is human nature; people who are different from or weaker than the norm are victims of intolerance and become isolated and lonely. Those who are in the norm are expected to be strong and not show their feelings. In Of Mice And Men, by John Steinbeck, the social power group is the white, male workers on the farm. They are younger men, still useful, reasonably intelligent, and average-sized. They exclude people who do not fit their norm, such as Curley for being short, Lennie for being retarded, Candy for being old, Crooks for being black, and Curley's wife for being a woman. Between themselves, they expect strength, distance and independence, and are uncomfortable with emotions. This intolerance and isolation cause loneliness for all the characters in this novel. This social power group oppresses and isolates Curley, Lennie and Candy because they are different, even though they are white. Lennie is very strong and big but his mind is like a child's, so the men don't respect him as an equal. For example, George explains to Slim that he, "Used to play jokes on [Lennie] cause he was too dumb to take care of 'imself"(p. 40). Lennie does not take part in the activities the workers do in their spare time. Lennie does not go to town with the men. In Weed, Lennie gets in trouble because the people don't understand his problem. They react with anger instead of understanding. George explains to Slim, "Cause he ain't mean....like what happened in Weed-"(p. 40). Candy is afraid that he will have nowhere to go soon because he is old: "I won't have no place to go, an' I can't get no jobs." (p. 60) Candy knows that society doesn't value or care about people who can't work. Society ejects them because they are no longer useful. Carlson shows this when he says about Candy's dog, " He ain't no good to you, Candy. An' he ain't no good himself. Why'n't you shoot him, Candy? (p. 44). Candy knows he is like his dog; an old man is almost useless. He knows how they will discard them he's no longer useful: "They says he wasn't no good to himself nor nobody else. When they can me here I wish't somebody shoot me." (p. 60) Curley feels excluded from society because he is too short. He hates big men because big men automatically get into the social power group. Candy comments to George that "Curley's like a lot of little guys. He hates big guys. He's alla time picking scraps with big guys.

Bread Making Time Line Essay

Depending on the type of yeast you are using the steps to making bread will vary. Using the basic bread dough recipe, this time line is based on using dry active yeast. I am also basing this time line on the straight dough method which is the direct method of making bread. STEP 1 To make your dough, your ingredients must be accurately measured and weighed as well as be the appropriate temperature. Wet ingredients are usually weighed rather than measured to guarantee the right amount is added. Humidity and heat can alter the amount of flour needed and therefore will also change the amount of liquid. For our basic dough recipe we need 4  ½ cups to 5 cups of bread flour. This would be weighed on a scale in ounces equaling 36 to 40 ounces. Keeping about  ¾ cup of flour to the side, 1 teaspoon of salt and  ½ cup of sugar is added to the remaining flour and mixed together. A tablespoon of Active Dry Yeast is dissolved in luke warm water and added to the mixed dry ingredients with 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil. It is imperative that the dough temperature be correct for proper yeast activation. The typical temperature for dough is around 77 degrees. To achieve the proper dough temperature you have to make sure your water is the right temperature. You wouldn’t take water direct from the tap. Assuming that our room temperature is 77 degrees and our mixer adds a 25 degree friction factor, then we want water that is around 61 degrees. We would add the 1 and  ¾ cups of water to our mixture slowly as to not make the dough to wet. If we were using other types of yeast we would either be directly adding the yeast, if instant, or we would soften compressed yeast until it is twice its weight before adding it to our mixture. STEP 2 Once we have added the water we now mix our dough in the mixer using a dough hook on low power until smooth, adding flour or water as needed for the property texture. After everything is mixed we would put the dough on a slab and kneed it until a ball is formed that is stretchy and holds together when pulled. The whole process should take about 10 minutes. STEP 3 Placing the dough in a container at least twice the size of the dough ball, the dough is left to rise. Rising is when the dough ferments and the yeast works to develop the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. These gasses are what give bread texture and taste. As stated before, rise time will vary depending on room temperature and humidity, but usually takes from 1 to 3 hours. The dough is ready when it is double its original size and no longer springs back to the touch. STEP 4 Now we take the dough and give it a gentle work over. Punching it down, or folding it over itself, and reshaping the ball redistributes the gasses that were produced during the rise and re activates the yeast. Punching down also helps even out the temperature of the dough and gives the gluten a bit of a rest. We will let the dough rest for 10 minutes after punching it down. STEP 5 We will shape the dough into our loaf and let it sit until it doubles again. This is called proofing. During proofing additional heat and moisture are added to prevent the dough from drying out. This is can be done in a proofing cabinet or in a container that is covered with a warm moist towel. When making rolls or smaller portion loaves this step would be the time to do that. Each portion would be proofed to double its size. STEP 6 We will wash our doubled loaf with egg wash to give it sheen and color and bake at 400 degrees for 19 minutes. When the internal temperature is at least 185 degrees we can remove the loaf from the oven. During baking it is important to provide steam in the oven. This allows for a crisp crust and soft center. To add steam to a traditional oven you can spray the bread with water several times during baking or you can put a pan of water in the oven. STEP 7 Once the baking is done the bread is cooled on a rack to room temperature. We can store our finished bread on the counter or it can be frozen. We should not store our bread in the refrigerator because it gets stale faster. Though it may seem time consuming, baking your own bread has great rewards and a profound sense of accomplishment. You are guaranteed fresh rolls and bread at every meal and can even try different recipes without spending a lot of money.

Coming to America Essay

Coming to America Essay Coming to America Essay My Journey To The Golden Land, The United States of America Troy Gardner HIS/120 – U.S. History 1865 to 1945 Instructor: JAMES HARRISON May 2012 University of Phoenix I am glad I chose to leave our homeland. The constant flooding kept destroying our home and with the lack of jobs, the money situation was being used as quickly as it was earned. Many people in our village had become sick and died due to disease from destroyed food supplies. Lack of food and no means to take care of my family forced me steal food and supplies from others. Unable to provide consistent meals forced my family to become terminally ill as well. Unfortunately, with the gradual death of my wife and children, I decided that there was really nothing holding me here in our village. Other villagers had packed up and spoke of the â€Å"Golden Land† in America. People who had already left spoke of many opportunities such good fertile soil for healthy and plentiful crops, schools for children, jobs, and plenty to eat. Finally, no one would have to worry about starvation. I watched as many families parted as the men and oldest child would leave and go to America s o they could both work to make enough money to afford the expense of bringing the remainder of the family over to be with them. With nothing really holing me here, I will be traveling alone, since my family had all passed on due to illness. I made my way to the shipping port with literally no money in my pockets. I knew I had to find a way to get on the next ship so I too could enjoy the fruits of the â€Å"Golden Land†. I managed to beg for scraps of food and mere pocket change of folks that would help me out. Since I was a hell of a card player, I figured I would try to hustle some money from others by playing poker. There were four other men and one woman playing poker in the alley and I joined the game. Quickly making a good sum of money, slowly as other players were reaching into empty pockets, I was becoming more and more confident about earning my fair to America. One of the other players, completely out of money, put up his boarding pass as part of the winning pot. My nerves were very stressed at seeing this. Know I had a crappy hand, I decided to try and bluff my way to that boarding pass, so I decided to take a gamble and go all in with my current winnings. Miraculously, I won!! â€Å"America, here I come!!† I shouted. The boarding pass was only good for steerage, the very bottom level of the ship, which is where most of the other immigrants also had to travel. Upon boarding the vessel, all people boarding had to undergo an extreme health check up. I notice that all the men and boys had to get their hair cut really short and girls and women had to have their thoroughly combed for lice. The reason for this, was shipping companies were held responsible for returning unhealthy people back to their homeland. The journey took about forty days to get from Europe to a place called Ellis Island. During the travel, people would go up on the open decks of the ship if the weather were pleasant. We ate slightly warm soups, some br eads, boiled potatoes, and stringy meat, most likely beef. Much of the food that was given to the steerage passengers looked like left overs and things that should have been thrown away. During below deck time, people often played simple games like marbles or checkers, while others visited with family and friends, or people from other places that were also traveling to America. The journey wasn’t always pleasant; there were severe storms and even illness, which did make some people perish. It is said that the huge statue there was the gateway to freedom. Once we reached Ellis Island, there were more doctors and specialist that had to check everyone who came off the ship. Folks that passed with a clean bill of health were allowed to leave Ellis Island and start their new lives. Others were not as fortunate. If they were deemed unhealthy,

Contrast and Compare Essay

Contrast and Compare Essay Contrast and Compare Essay Contrast and Compare: Hinduism and Confucianism Professor Williams World Religions 212 05/04/2014 Hinduism is dominant religion in some regions of India. It consists of many diverse traditions including Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism. Hinduism also consists of a wide spectrum of laws of daily morality based on karma, dharma, and societal norms. Raja Rammohan Roy, an Indian social reformer, first used the work Hinduism in 1816 and 1817. It is and English word that he used to describe the religion of his ancestors who believed in the unity of God a â€Å"real Hinduism† (Bacus and Lahiri 2010: 313). It is believed that Hindu worship and belief are observable in South Asia in the second half of the first millennium BC and in Southeast Asia beginning in the early-mid first millennium AD. More than 76 percent of people in India and 85 percent of people in Nepal along with a small percentage of people in south-central Vietnam continue to describe themselves as Hindu. Unlike other religions, Hinduism does not have a historical founder or a codified canon that is accept ed by believers (Bacus and Lahiri 2010: 314). Its roots are the Vedic religion of the late Vedic period and its emphasis on the status of Brahmans. Hindu has several everyday religious practices that take place everyday. The worship of things inanimate, with are gifted with mysterious motion, the worship of mere stocks and stones and local configurations, which are unusual and grotesque in shape, size or position. The worship of a Deo, or spirit, a thing without form and void and the worship of persons who had a great reputation during life, or who dies in some strange or notorious way at shrines. There are other daily rituals such as puja and recitations, annual festivals and occasional pilgrimages. Mantras are invocations, through praise and prayers, worshippers chant and focus the mind on holy thoughts or express devotion to God/the deities. Many devotees perform morning ablutions at the bank of sacred river while chanting the Gayatri Mantra or Mahamrityunjaya mantras. The most visible arena of Hindu worship is the temple, which was located both inside and outside of settlements. Many temples were made of elaborate m aterials. Hindu also observes many festivals. The festivals are considered as symbolic rituals that weave individual and social life to dharma. Typically events from Hindu mythology are celebrated and often coincide with seasonal changes. The festivals are celebrated by specific sects or in certain regions of the Indian subcontinent. Some of the festivals include Holi (celebrated in the United States), Diwali (celebrated in Mysore) and Vasant Panchami (celebrated in Kolkata). Confucianism is the way of life propagated by Confucius in the 6th-5th century BCE and followed by the Chinese people for man than two millennia (Weiming, 2014). It is still the substance of learning, the source of values, and the social code of the Chinese. Confucianism has also influenced Japan, Korea and Vietnam. This religion differs from other religions because it is not organized. It spread to other East Asian countries under the influence of Chinese literature culture and has exerted a profoun d influence on spiritual and political life. It can be understood as an all-encompassing way of thinking and living that entails ancestor reverence and a profound human centered religiousness (Weiming, 2014). Even without deities and a vision of salvation, Confucianism plays much the same role as religion does in other cultures. Its tradition was instrumental in shaping the Chinese social relationships and moral thought. The founder was Kong Qiu, who was born around 552 BCE. 16th Century Jesuit missionaries in China created the title based on the honorific title Kong Fuzi. Confucian traditions were influenced by the belief in Tian as a moral force guiding the universe, the importance of virtuous

How to Wear Your Workout Clothes to the Office

How to Wear Your Workout Clothes to the Office Office dress codes are usually not very fun. (HR still won’t take me up on my suggestion of â€Å"wear your pajamas to work† day, sadly.) You can see where they’re coming from- take away the rules, and it could be fashion anarchy up in there. Better to set a minimum standard so that everyone projects the level of professionalism that the company wants clients and visitors to see. However, if you’re trying to match up your work day with your workout goals, there are ways to be ready for the cardio class and the team status meeting. 1. The under-the-clothes approachI mean, it worked for Superman, right? Clark Kent had his business-attire suit over his Superman hero-attire suit, and was ready to go whenever. Too many layers could be a problem if your office is very warm, but otherwise consider using layering pieces like t-shirts and tank tops under your regular blazer or sweater. I’d find a more private place to change than Superman’s preferred telephone booth, but if all you have to do is peel off your top shirt and you’re just about ready for the gym, you’ve saved yourself some time.2. Fancy yoga pantsPants are tougher, especially for men- it’s pretty hard to spin sweatpants as khakis. For women, there are some companies making dark, stretchy yoga/workout pants that double as dressier pants. You could also wear workout pants under a dress or skirt or as you’d normally wear tights or leggings. If you go this route, make sure to choose black pants that are a nice, lightweight material- very basic and sharp-looking.3. Sneakers in disguiseWhenever I see those sneakers that look like dressy flats, I think of Transformers. Looks like a fancy shoe, but shh†¦it’s a sneaker in disguise. Shop around for a sneaker that looks like it could pass with a work outfit: colors like black, dark blue, or brown, without bright color accents. You could also use dark shoelaces to make your sneakers blend better with your professional clothes.Whichever sneakers you end up choosing, make sure they look clean and presentable- muddy, worn shoes will never go with a professional outfit.4. Class it up with accessoriesIf you wear workout leggings and a tank top in a neutral color, you can add nice jewelry or scarves to make it more of a work outfit. For example, if you’re wearing a hoodie that looks like it could be a legit sweater, but you’re also wearing a cool watch or interesting earrings, it looks more like a funky casual outfit and less like you’ve given up and started wearing plain old sweats to work.Of course, with any of these, you should check with your company’s dress policy first to make sure you’re not being too casual. You should also make sure that you’re not underdressing for meetings or other important work events. But otherwise, a few touches that make your transition from work to gym easier should be fine. It could make all the difference between a) keeping that three-times-a-week gym resolution, or b) giving up because changing every piece of clothing is a pain, and why not go home and eat chips on the couch instead.This article is part of Bulk Up Your Career in 2017  campaign. Access the entire guide here to help you succeed in 2017.

English assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

English assessment - Essay Example cording to Garrison and Ehringhaus, relying on one of the two procedures more may lead to students’ needs becoming unclear since one form of assessment cannot provide a full picture of the situation. Summative assessment is used to evaluate certain students’ needs, and usually has a form of tests, semester exams, end of unit or end of chapter tests, etc. (Gao, 2002). Bloom, Hastings and Madhaus (1971) define summative assessment as evaluation conducted at the ends of certain periods of time in order to judge the sufficiency of students’ knowledge. Such an assessment is to define the final grade of the students, as well as help educators to make corrections and adjustment in the current curriculum, where needed, in order for the learning needs to be met in future. At the same time a summative assessment cannot reflect the efficiency of teaching in its process because assessment is carried out only after the instruction – so any curriculum or methodological improvements can be implemented in future practice only. Therefore, formative assessment is the one to evaluate the process of learning in its process, and, consequently, is a part of the teaching process. Incorporated into the educational process, it is to discover gaps and adjust both teaching and learning processes to the students’ needs immediately in the process of learning. Besides, such an approach enables educators to raise the learning standards (Black & Wiliam, 1998) right in the process of teaching: having evaluated the current needs of each individual student, including those with lower abilities, a teacher can address them immediately. The information provided by formative assessment is to be used for modifying the teaching and learning activities in the classroom in order to get the best possible learning results (Black & William, 1998). This idea is also supported by Fennell & Maccoll (1983), who point out that formative assessment is important and useful for getting feedback on

Modern Finance Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Modern Finance - Coursework Example The management style and organisation culture are the main factors in determining the ways of growth. The organic growth involves internal improvement of organisation. Internal improvement includes the achievement of core competency that leads to develop competitive advantage in the industry. Organic growth is a long term process where the growth rate is comparatively low. In case of inorganic growth, company aims to achieve higher success within a short period of time. Inorganic growth can be achieved by merging or acquiring other companies, strategic alliances etc (Indian Council for International Amity, n.d.). Inorganic growth is the latest trend of the business world. Increasing competitiveness raises demand for inorganic growth. Merger and acquisition (M&A) is the most desirable approach in inorganic growth strategy for a company seeking rapid growth. Mergers and acquisitions are different concepts. According to Zeng, â€Å"merger is term used for companies and similar bodies rather than assets and liabilities† and these two companies joins together and becomes â€Å"a single indistinguishable whole† (Zeng, 1999, p.19). In case of acquisition, â€Å"ownership passes from one person to another† as an acquirer company completely takeovers an acquired company. (Zeng, 1999, p.19) This paper will attempt to deal with the merger and acquisitions and its various aspect. In this process, the reasons behind the M&A and its influencing factors will be analysed. The process and issues in M&A will figured out with proper example. The impact of M&A on the business environment will be discussed pointing out its positive and negative effects. Before focusing on the motives of mergers and acquisitions, it is necessary to analyse the growth oriented corporate strategies of organisations. An organisation must decide its ways of growth. In order to achieve higher market share and profit, and to become the market leader, an organisation tries to growth in an inorganic

Beauty Between Men and Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Beauty Between Men and Women - Essay Example Most of the time, debates occur because of the fact that there are instances when the recognition of each gender's special traits as a person is disregarded by the society during certain circumstances. This is primarily because of the fact that men and women are viewed differently by the human society. By the different legends, the accounts of creation, the different mythological stories, the shaping of the characteristics of both men and women becomes more vivid, thus making it possible for a person to receive a certain "mark" in their forehead as they grow up basing from their gender, even before they could even make a name for themselves. What are these marking differences all about' Men are primarily noted as the "strong" sector of the human society. They are viewed to be the primary ones to receive authority and thus imply power upon all others. Through the myths and legends [as mentioned earlier]; men were perceived to have a greater command over things compared to that of the women's capability of exercising authority over all. On the other hand, women were viewed as the weaker sector of humanity (Jervis, 2001, 17). They are referred to as the complimentary partner of men who are intended to give assistance to the men when they are to carry out their responsibilities over humankind. Because of the social philosophy based on the theory of essentialism, this traditional recognition of the role of men and women in the society became much easier to accept for so many years. (Jervis, 2001, 18) However, during the 1800's, the birth of liberalization gave way to the feminist movement of the female sector of the population. Things have really changed and the supposed unwavering capability of men to rule over others began to shiver because of primarily being disturbed by the different stresses that the said gender actually had to deal with in life. After all, men were faced with the many responsibilities that they have to complete for their families, their wives, their fellow citizens and their nation. Attending to these responsibilities mainly made some of the men's capability to handle multi-numbered responsibilities began to whither. Hence, the women, being known as the complimentary gender to that of the men, began to long for a more important role in the society as progressive individuals of the human civilization. The women then began to create movements that would actually carry their "banners of pride" towards recognition form the entire human society. The liberty from simply being a wife, being a mother or being a child has been achieved during the 1990's when women were allowed to run for positions for government administrative offices; when they were given the chance to take over high positions on business corporations; when they were allowed to consider becoming members of the military force.

ENTREPRENURSHIP CAPITAL & THE FIRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

ENTREPRENURSHIP CAPITAL & THE FIRM - Essay Example The major activities of an entrepreneur generally depends upon three components which include bearing risks, introducing innovative technologies and creating new products or services The main function of an entrepreneur is to form new solutions by recognising opportunities for attaining considerable profits. The common features of an entrepreneur are identifying business opportunities, adopting as well as implementing effective business strategies, creating interrelation with the employees and utilising valuable resources (Havinal 95-101). An entrepreneur is typically viewed to be the owner of the business whose prime intention is to accomplish desired business objectives. An entrepreneur is required to acquire adequate knowledge as well as skills relating to the analysis of business markets for the success of the business. A particular entrepreneur is entrusted with the responsibility of performing effective business functions for enhanced business performance and achieving signific ant competitive position over the chief business market competitors. Additionally, an entrepreneur must possess specific business traits as well as characteristics to conduct business in an effective manner (Havinal 95-101). Thesis Statement In this discussion, the background of the entrepreneur from childhood to commencement of business will be taken into concern. Moreover, the influencing factors which are responsible for encouraging the entrepreneurs to start up new business and detailed analysis of the subsequent management and development of a new venture will also be portrayed in the discussion. Background of the Entrepreneur The background of an entrepreneur is recognised to be an essential factor for influencing an individual to start up a new business. The varied experiences which are acquired by an individual from childhood are responsible for the development of entrepreneurial qualities. There are certain factors which require paying much attention for commencing a new bu siness by taking into concern the traits that experiences by an entrepreneur from childhood as well as family background. In this similar context, an entrepreneur as a child should obtain the knowledge as well as the experiences from his/her parents who conduct business for survival. It has been apparently observed that the self-employed parents perform significant role in developing entrepreneurial behaviour as well as attitudes towards a child (Lancaster University, â€Å"Family Business Background, Perceptions of Barriers and Entrepreneurial Intentions in Cyprus†). According to Krueger (1993), the conduct of family business can be regarded as an important as well as influencing factor for acquiring perceived qualities as well as beliefs to commence a new business. The availability of capital required for starting up a business is an important determinant which influences an individual to become a successful entrepreneur.

Roman Civilization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Roman Civilization - Essay Example During the rule of Augustus, Rome experienced prosperity and peace and it is regarded as the golden age. Rome had an autocratic form of government and Augustus ruled Rome for around 40 years. Rome had a civilization which has set an example for other countries. The civic life, religious principles, culture and norms, economic ties everything was worth praising. The Rome had a superior infrastructure and the building and transportation was of high quality. Roman Empire was the largest in the world history and covered much of the world’s regions from Europe and Africa to Middle East. Even the population of the Empire was largest and was around 60 million inhabitants. The military and army of Rome was superior and many battles have been won by them. Roman had laws which were based on morality and justice. Rome had multi -cultural society and believed in shared identity. For the very same reasons, Roman civilization has had a great impact on the modern world. Impact on Law and Political System The major influence of Roman civilization on modern world was the Roman law. The Roman law distinguished between public law and private law which we can see in the modern law constitution. This is the basis of Western law and is known as civil law. Also the private international law is also influenced by the Roman law. In Roman civilization, they practiced jury trials, same as today’s’ practice. The Roman can also be credited with many defense techniques practiced by the modern people. The concept of â€Å"innocent until proven guilty â€Å"which is the basic rule of American Judiciary system came from ancient Rome law. The written law to protect the human rights and freedom was also a system followed by Roman people. The law regarding taxation is also taken from Roman civilization. According to Roman law, people were to be treated equal and fairly. Their laws were based on common sense and practicality. Most of the legal system in the world is following Roman practic e of law. Roman has also influenced the way in which the political system works today. The voting system which we followed today is the legacy of Roman people. Even they had lower and upper class senate like we do. They had legislative bodies and senate just like modern political system. The Impact on Language The language of Roman civilization was Latin and they depended little on order of words. The Roman alphabets were formed with Greek alphabet as a basis. The Roman people mostly studied literature that was in Greek. As the Roman Empire grew, so did their language spread to different parts of the world,With some time the classic Latin took a form of Vulgar Latin in some parts of the world which gave birth to different Romance language. So it can de definitely said that Indo European languages evolved from Latin, which is the language of ancient Roman civilization. Later, Latin language gain prominence in Western empire and became the foundation of French, Italian, Portuguese, Sp anish and Romanian languages. Even though, they all started as bad Latin as time passed by these established themselves as different languages. Latin language also had influenced many words used in other different countries. For Example, English has many Latin words although it does not follow Latin syntax- grammar. Since Latin was the language of Roman Catholic Church it influenced even the non –romance languages. The Impact on Infrastructure The Roman civilization

ENTREPRENURSHIP CAPITAL & THE FIRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

ENTREPRENURSHIP CAPITAL & THE FIRM - Essay Example The major activities of an entrepreneur generally depends upon three components which include bearing risks, introducing innovative technologies and creating new products or services The main function of an entrepreneur is to form new solutions by recognising opportunities for attaining considerable profits. The common features of an entrepreneur are identifying business opportunities, adopting as well as implementing effective business strategies, creating interrelation with the employees and utilising valuable resources (Havinal 95-101). An entrepreneur is typically viewed to be the owner of the business whose prime intention is to accomplish desired business objectives. An entrepreneur is required to acquire adequate knowledge as well as skills relating to the analysis of business markets for the success of the business. A particular entrepreneur is entrusted with the responsibility of performing effective business functions for enhanced business performance and achieving signific ant competitive position over the chief business market competitors. Additionally, an entrepreneur must possess specific business traits as well as characteristics to conduct business in an effective manner (Havinal 95-101). Thesis Statement In this discussion, the background of the entrepreneur from childhood to commencement of business will be taken into concern. Moreover, the influencing factors which are responsible for encouraging the entrepreneurs to start up new business and detailed analysis of the subsequent management and development of a new venture will also be portrayed in the discussion. Background of the Entrepreneur The background of an entrepreneur is recognised to be an essential factor for influencing an individual to start up a new business. The varied experiences which are acquired by an individual from childhood are responsible for the development of entrepreneurial qualities. There are certain factors which require paying much attention for commencing a new bu siness by taking into concern the traits that experiences by an entrepreneur from childhood as well as family background. In this similar context, an entrepreneur as a child should obtain the knowledge as well as the experiences from his/her parents who conduct business for survival. It has been apparently observed that the self-employed parents perform significant role in developing entrepreneurial behaviour as well as attitudes towards a child (Lancaster University, â€Å"Family Business Background, Perceptions of Barriers and Entrepreneurial Intentions in Cyprus†). According to Krueger (1993), the conduct of family business can be regarded as an important as well as influencing factor for acquiring perceived qualities as well as beliefs to commence a new business. The availability of capital required for starting up a business is an important determinant which influences an individual to become a successful entrepreneur.

(business law)organization and financial structure of corporations Case Study

(business law)organization and financial structure of corporations - Case Study Example The issue to be determined is whether a director, who acts on behalf of a company before it is incorporated, but in good faith and on the knowledge that the organization is already incorporated, is liable for the actions. Applicable rule of law to the case is the Revised Model Business Corporation Act that states that parties that assume actions as agents of a corporation with the knowledge that the subject organization has not been incorporated are liable for their actions (Mallor, Barnes, Bowers and Langvard, 2012). The rule is suitable for determining the case because its provisions cover facts of the case. R & F Corporation had prepared its articles of association for filing and Rose was the chair of the corporation’s board and therefore acted on behalf of the organization, contracting for the lease of the warehouse. While the act protects parties to a contract with agents of a corporation who acts before the filing of the corporation’s documents, it protects individuals who act in good faith, especially with the knowledge that the organization is already legally incorporated. Determining the case therefore requires proof of whether or not, Rose acted in good faith, and whether or not, he was aware of the incorporation status of the organization. The testimony by Rose that he acted believed the organization was already incorporated was supported by a co-director to R & F Corporation and this establishes validity of his limited knowledge. His position as the corporation’s chairman that identified responsibility of signing the board’s resolution further suggest that his actions were undertaken within his jurisdiction and for the interest of the corporation and the co-director’s testimony supports this. The facts of the case that indicates a long delay in filing the signed articles also justifies Rose’s testimony that he believed the documents had already been filed. The position that Rose held in the organization, board

Parks and recreation Essay Example for Free

Parks and recreation Essay Chicago is a major medical and dental center supported by high-class hospitals and research services offering to its dwellers. Chicago offers life science and biotech entrepreneurs with a balance of capital, community. The local companies are experienced vanguarding the diagnostics, therapeutics, medical equipment, food and environmental biotechnologies, and research and development related activities (World business Chicago, 2005). Transportation Chicagos boasts a major inland port and the railroad hub of the US, while the OHare International Airport is the worlds busiest airports. The city has 1,084,127 number of passenger cars and 55,585 trucks (B plates) and 17,807 Trucks (RV) and Busses with total CTA passenger figure of 450,530,411 as per 2000. There are 3 airports, which handled 1,663,784 metric tons of cargo in 2000. The detail is shown in the table 1. 4 (Chicago Public Library, 2005). Lagos is connected by rail and road to all the major cities of Nigeria, while the city main Airport is Murtala Muhammad International Airport situated in city center. Ferries and highways form the transportation link for the city, but transport links within Lagos are crowded due to chaotic and unplanned geography of the city. Its volatile population, broken roads and reckless drivers, worsens the situation (Simmie, 2001) Table 1. 4 Chicago has total 791 parks, which includes baseball, basketball, bathing beaches, field houses, playgrounds, football, golf courses, driving ranges and gymnasiums with total area of 7,337 acres. There are also 5,327 harbor facilities and swimming pools, and zoos. (Chicago Public Library, 2005) In Lagos near the lagoon, Ebute Metta, multitude of wooden homes and shops are built over the frail silt which offer cheap living and food. The people sit in the middle and enjoy meals in the middle of stink, naked kids and beggars. The shops are made by these people to have a living, as government doesn’t seem to bother about their miseries. A council of elders resolves the issues inside the slums as government has little concern for these poor people (Smith, 2000). Water, sewerage and sanitation system The Chicago city has elaborate and well-developed water and sewerage, sanitation and recycling system. The city daily water pumpage is 969,225,00 gallons, while the water tunnels and lake covers an area of 63 miles. The city residential waste was about 1. 1 million ton as per 2000, while the total amount of recycling reached about 296,425 tons. The total length of sewers is about 4300 miles with 148000 main holes. Lagos is built on poorly drained marshlands. The city suffers flooding not only in the rainy season, but sewage blockage floods the city slums regularly. Just like other third world cities, Lagos is riddled with garbage and waste disposal littered everywhere. The explosive population has led the boom in construction industry, but without any planning as a result the building constructed with cheap material collapse giving rise to series of accidents frequently. The city is infamous for its traffic jams, as some times a 10 km distance can take up to three hours. Lagos has the reputation of the most dangerous city in the Africa. As the few bridge connects 3,500 square km of islands, swamp and the mainland, the highways run through mountains of garbage and wastelands with dirt and dust in the air passing through its 200 slums eternally drenched in sewage, garbage and industrial waste (Hall, 2001). The city haphazard planning has given rise to chaotic development, causing shortage of houses, roads, power, water and constant traffic jams. About 90 percent of the Nigerian people have access to electricity with Lagos consuming 45 percent of the energy (Octchet, 2005).

Injury Risk in Elite Basketball Players

Injury Risk in Elite Basketball Players The elite basketball player is considered in this piece not only in terms of his potential for injury but also in terms of the potential of the physiotherapist and other sports professionals, to give advice, support and guidance so that he may practice his chosen sport as safely as is reasonably possible. We have looked at the nature, incidence and sites of injuries sustained. We have looked at the two most commonly injured sites (the knee and ankle) in specific detail. We have also discussed the relevant modalities of treatment that a physiotherapist can provide for their clients. There appears to be considerable controversy in the current literature, particularly in the field of pre-exercise stretching. As this is commonly accepted practice by participants, coaches, trainers and sports medicine professionals alike, we have reviewed the arguments both for and against in some detail. We have paid particular attention to its value in the prophylaxis of injury and the evidence to support it. The role of the physiotherapist in education and training of the elite athlete is also discussed. There are a number of sources quoted who regard it as a prime responsibility of the physiotherapist to give the athlete the information to allow them to train and participate as safely and effectively as possible. We have also considered the role of the physiotherapist in the prophylaxis of injury by looking at the various modalities of treatment and intervention that can be employed to make the field of play a safer place. In addition to the main-stream elite basketball player we have also looked at the role of the physiotherapist in the role of helping the disabled basketball player, some of whom have achieved elite status in their own right. They have their own specific problems and these are reviewed and discussed. Lastly we look at the specific gender differences in the sport. With many women finding that the sport is attractive, they participate at a top level of achievement. We look at the reasons why they have a different injury profile to men, both in terms of numbers of injuries but also in terms of the frequency of specific types of injury. The mechanisms of this difference is discussed together with the means whereby it can be addressed. Introduction Basketball is a world-wide sport practised by children in their backyard, adolescents in their playground, amateurs in their league games and elite athletes in their world-stage arenas. It is – by any standards – a fast game with inevitable physical contact, both intentional and accidental. Both these factors lead to the potential for injury. The explosive effort for the fast moves leads to particular pattern of muscle, ligament and tendon injury (see on) and the physical contact can lead to bruises, dislocations, fractures another injuries. It is a sport that is enjoyed by both sexes. Although it was originally conceived primarily as a male sport (for the YMCA)in an era when female participation in sport was a rarity, women now participate in it to elite levels and suffer injury to a similar extent to their male counterparts. The game itself has evolved dramatically since its humble beginnings when Dr James Naismith nailed two peach baskets at the ends of his gymnasium in 1891 (hence the name basketball) It was developed as a tool for fitness training by the YMCA. By 1927 The Harlem Globetrotters had been formed and by 1936 it was included as an Olympic sport. According to FIBA (Basketball governing body) over 400 million people play basketball on a world-wide basis Training for the fitness needed to play the sport can also lead touts own problems. One huge study by Ruhr M Kuala et al. (1994) (1) found that of all the injuries associated with basketball, 50% occurred during the matches and 50% occurred during training for the matches. This should be contrasted with the finding in study by Meeuwisse et al.(2) where injuries during the game were 3.7 times as likely to occur as in training. One could reasonably conclude that a large proportion of the injuries sustained in the â€Å"cut and thrust† of a full scale match are part of the risk package accepted in playing the game. The huge proportion of injuries sustained whilst training, however, should be largely preventable, as training should be ideally undertaken in carefully controlled circumstances. The physiotherapist, personal trainer and sports medicine specialist are ideally placed to advise and oversee poor practice in the training arena and to give advice and guidance to maximise training efficiency and to reduce the toll of injury. Any experienced sports care professional will tell you that the single most important factor in determining the likelihood of sustaining an injury is the occurrence of a previous injury (2). It therefore follows that prevention of any injury will help, not only in improving the immediate efficiency of the player, but will also confer protection against the possibility of recurring injury in any given site. Before we consider the mechanisms and prophylaxis of injuries in basketball, it would be prudent to consider the observed injuries from the sport, both in absolute number and site. The study by Meeuwisse(2003) (2) followed a cohort of 142 basketball players over a two year period and discovered that 44.7% of the players were injured in that time frame. As they recorded over 200 injuries in that time, it is clear that many players were injured more than once. The study by Ruhr M Kuala et al. (1994) (1) will be extensively quoted in this piece as it provides an enormous amount of meticulously collected data which has a high degree of confidence in its validity. It was based in Finland where the population has a particularly regimented system of bureaucratic personal information storage, especially with regard to injury and healthcare details. The entire population has to be registered with a nationally based health insurance, which records every accident and injury. This is of enormous value to studies such as this, as accurate statistics about entities such as specific sporting injuries can be derived comparatively easily. The study is also important in this specific regard as it encompasses an enormous cohort of basketball players analysing 39,541person years of basketball experience and 3,472 specific injuries. It’s worth considering the patterns of injury found in some detail as it has an impact on the deliberations in this piece. In terms of age distribution, it was found that injuries in thunder 15 yr. age group were comparatively rare and that the injury rate peaked in the 20 – 24 yr. age groups. Percentage of injuries by sites in basketball players (These results are slightly modified with some trivia removed) Injury Site % of total Lower limb Total 56.0 Thigh 2.5 Knee 15.8 Leg 2.0 Ankle 31.4 Foot 4.0 Other 0.4 Upper Limb total 19.3 Upper arm + Shoulder 2.6 Forearm and elbow 1.3 Palm + wrist Fingers 11.1 Other 0.4 Other Sites Total 24.7 Teeth 5.2 Eyes 3.0 Head + neck 7.4 Thorax + Abdomen 1.5 Back 5.4 Pelvis 0.9 Multiple sites 1.4 There are clearly a number of striking trends in these figures. The lower limbs sustaining the most injuries with 56% of the total. The ankle and knee taking the lion’s share of these. These results are clearly fairly predictable with the nature of the sport being one of sudden changes of acceleration and direction, many changes of direction(pivoting) involving turning forces impinging maximally on the knee and ankle. Both joints are intrinsically unstable for these modalities of movements. They are designed to be most effective in walking and running in a straight line. Although they can accommodate twisting movements, they are much less mechanically sound in these directions. The possibility of unanticipated, and therefore unraced, impacts is endemic in the sport and will increase the possibility of injury to these joins in particular. The upper limb has a substantial tally of injuries with the bulk being to the palm, wrist and fingers. Although it is not specified in this particular study, any experienced clinician would expect to see substantial proportion of hyperextensions and dislocations to the fingers and sprains and strains to the wrist (this is partially amplified in the next section). For a sport that involves considerable manipulative and throwing skills, it is, perhaps, surprising that the shoulder and upper arm account for only 2.6% of all the injuries. In contrast to the comments made about the knee and ankle, one can postulate that the shoulder, by virtue of its design to accommodate a much greater range and compass of movement, is less likely to be injured in the way that the knee and ankle are. Also, in the course of the normal game, it is subject to rather less overall mechanical force as both the knee and ankle have to assimilate peak loads of several times the body weight whereas the shoulder, unless involved in a fall, does not. Of the â€Å"Other Sites†, the neck and back are the commonest sites for injury. To a large extent, this again is a reflection of the explosive nature of the game with frequent changes of direction and velocity with high levels of acceleration. Having recognised the major sites of injury it is now prudent to discuss the main types of injury. Percentage injury by type in basketball players (These results are slightly modified with some trivia removed) Injury type + site % of total Sprains +strains 61.3 Knee 12.4 Ankle 29.5 Bruises + Wounds 22.2 Fractures 12.6 Fracture (other than dental) 7.6 Foot + ankle 18.5 Lower limb (other) 3.8 Fingers Palm + wrist 57.0 Upper limb (other) 4.2 Other (nondental) 16.6 Dental 4.9 Dislocations 1.7 Knee 0.5 Shoulder + elbow 0.3 Fingers 0.3 Others 2.2 Sprains and strains are the commonest type of injury in this sport with the ankle being the most frequently injured site in this respect. Considerable amounts of work and research have been done(2,3,4,5,6,7,8) to try to find mechanisms whereby ankle injuries can beat least reduced in both frequency and severity. This will be discussed in detail later. Knee strains and sprains are the next most frequent at12.4%. Similar amounts of work have been done to find ways of minimising knee injuries (9,10,11). The knee injury is notorious for producing long-term debilitating problems as not only is the acute injury painful and potentially debilitating in itself, but there is also the potential for Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) damage and meniscal damage and wear as well. This may not be immediately apparent but may contribute to morbidity at a later date. This study (1) found that knee injuries were the most common cause of permanent disability In the longer term. During the time frame of this study, four basketball players sustained permanent injuries. In specific relation to knee and ankle injury, the Meiuwess study(2) found that the situation can be further amplified by the finding that the greatest number of injuries which resulted in seven or more sessions being lost in a season arose from the knee. Equally striking was the fact that the most common injury that involved less than seven sessions being lost, were injuries to the ankle. This underlines the comment made earlier that knee injuries tend to be potentially more serious than ankle injuries Bruises and wounds account for over 1/5th of the total types of injury and fractures account for just over 1/10th. In line with the comments made earlier about the frequency of hand, finger and wrist injury, it will come as no surprise therefore to see that the hand and wrist accounts for over half of the total of fractures. The foot and ankle account for 18.5% of total fractures. This is a reversal of the figures relating to site of injury. It would therefore appear that the hand gets injured less frequently that the foot, but when it does, it’s more likely to sustain the more serious (fracture) type of injury. Although the foot is more likely to be injured, it is more likely to suffer a strain or sprain rather than a fracture. In the study by Home et al.,(2004) (12) There was an unexpected, and slightly worrying, conclusion. They found that, in a study of fractures in sport, that (for men at least) basketball was the sport that put the participants at greatest risk of sustaining a fracture. The Knee and Basketball As we have already discussed, a knee injury is potentially more serious than just the implication of the immediate acute injury. For that reason, and for the fact that it is one of the two most commonly injured areas, we will look at the knee as a specific entity. We know that the single most important predictor for further injury is the past history of a preceding original injury. The knee is also significant insofar as the normal maxim of rest a joint until the inflammation has settled is rarely practical, as the knee is essential for locomotion and, as any experienced clinician knows, the vast majority of patients with resolving knee injuries will wait until the pain subsides to a tolerable level, and then start to walk on it. This effectively means that the joint is being stressed while resolving inflammation is present. Initially this may manifest itself as no more than a mildly aching knee, but it is likely that menisci, cruciate ligaments and articular surfaces are all being stressed in a â€Å"less than optimal† state. It is likely, on a first principles basis, that this type of mechanism may be, in part at least, responsible for the increased levels of arthritis and arthritis that is observed in lifelong athletes. (13,14) The paper by Meeuwisse (2) has been quoted several times in this piece. It is worth remembering that his team found that the knee waste joint which, if injured, gave rise to the longest periods of incapacity. It is therefore prudent to consider the mechanisms of injury, the treatment of those injuries and, possibly more importantly in the context of this piece, what can be done to minimise the incidence and impact of those injuries. We would commend an excellent paper by Bahr (2001) (3) on the subject. He discusses (amongst other things) the current thinking on knee injuries. He makes comment on the increasing incidence of cruciate ligament injuries. These injuries are seen with greatest frequency in athletes who participate in sports that involve â€Å"pivoting† – a movement which involves a fixed foot on the floor being used as a fulcrum topspin the body around – a movement which can put huge rotational stresses on the knee joint. As has been observed earlier in this piece, the knee is designed primarily to be efficient in dealing with movement in a sagittal plane. It is very poorly adapted to deal with rotational stresses. Bahr observes that the maximal incidence of cruciate ligament injury is in the 15-25 yr. old age group and in women three to five times more frequently than in men (see on) (14). He also refers to the post-injury, long-term complications of abnormal joint mechanics and the early onset of degenerative joint disease (15). Significantly he points to the fact that, although there has been an increasing trend recently (mainly because of improved operating techniques) to attempt to repair menisci and cruciate ligaments, this has not been accompanied by an apparent reduction in the rate of post-traumatic osteoarthritis. Similarly, arthroscopic repair of isolated meniscal damage has not been shown to reduce the incidence of arthritis. These factors all mitigate the argument that, although treatment is important, the identification of risk factors that predispose to injury is even more important. The Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) is commonly injured in circumstances that many athletes would consider as normal or routine for their particular sport. Frequently the damage occurs without direct physical contact to the knee (9). This is strong evidence to support the â€Å"design fault† explanation of the aetiology. There is recent anecdotal data to suggest that improving the control of the knee may have an impact in reducing the incidence of these injuries. This views supported in a paper by Carafe (10) who looked at improving the proprioceptive and balance mechanisms in footballers over a three season period. They reported an 87% decrease in the incidence of injuries to the ACL. It may be significant that they studied semi-professional and amateur footballers who, presumably, did not train as efficiently of as skilfully as their professional footballer counterparts and therefore there was probably considerable room for improvement. Similarly constructed studies have shown similar pattern of improvement in young female football (11) and handball (16) players using a similar programme of training over a season. As has been pointed out earlier, such changes are more likely to be noticeable in females because of the higher incidence of ACL injury in the first place. Bahr points out that these studies were too small to allow a proper statistical evaluation of the reduction of injury to the ACL specifically, but there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the risk of serious knee injury can be significantly reduced by the introduction of structured training exercises that focus on improving the neuron-muscular control of the knee. Bahr makes the very salient point that balance (proprioceptive)training is not yet universally recognised by coaches and trainers as useful tool. As a result, he argues that it is the responsibility of doctors and physiotherapists to disseminate the knowledge that such training does reduce the incidence of serious short-term (and therefore long-term) knee injury. Anterior knee pain is a common, sometimes chronic presenting symptom in any sports related health professional’s clinic. There are many theories as to its aetiology and it is notoriously resistant to treatment. An unattributed paper (quoted by Minerva in the BMJ) (17)refers to Jumper’s knee where the pain is maximal near the attachment of the patella ligament. Ultrasound of the region can show an area of increased echogenicity in the inferior pole of the patella. Minerva quotes the study as observing that of 100 athletes seen in one clinic,18 had to give up their sport for over a year and about 1/3rd needed surgery in order to try to get resolution of the problem. In conclusion to this section we would refer the reader to the excellent paper by Adams WB (2004) (18) who reviews the current thinking on treatment options on both overuse syndromes and trauma tithe knee. The Ankle and Basketball As we have seen earlier, the ankle is the single most commonly injured site in the body during basketball comprising 31.4% of all the injuries observed (1) and ankle strains and sprains were the single commonest mechanism of injury observed with 1/3rd of all such injuries and 1/5th of all fractures. We will therefore also consider the ankles a special case. Bahr (3) quotes that in round figures 20% of sports related injuries involve the ankle. The vast majority of ankle injuries are simple sprains of the lateral and medial ankle ligaments. Proper functional care will allow the patient to return to work within a few days, or at worst a few weeks, with minimal squeal. Some sprains are found to cause prolonged disability in the form of chronic instability or persistent pain. Prophylaxis of injury is discussed elsewhere in this piece but it should be noted that taping and bracing are commonly employed techniques for protection, but their efficacy has only been demonstrated in sportsmen with a history of previous injury (5,6).There is little doubt that taping and bracing will reduce the incidence of sprains and result in less severe strains. â€Å"High-top† basketball boots have been introduced recently on the assumption that similar boots (18a) (viz. ski boots) reduce the incidence of ankle injury, but it has not yet produced any specific evidence that sprains and strains are reduced. Braces seen to be more effective than tape in preventing sprains of the ankle (7,8) Bracing has the advantage that it is more acceptable in terms of comfort for long-term use (6). Taping is commonly used but appears to be less effective than braces because it relies on adhesion to the skin to exert its protective influence. It can cause skin irritation and has to be reapplied on virtually every occasion where potential stress can occur. One of the major problems of doing research into ankle injuries is that qualitative and subjective measurements such as pain and immobility can be easily assessed, but the ankle joint is a very functionally complex structure and quantitative measurements of anything other than flexion/extension or rotation an very difficult. Its therefore heartening to read of a Dutch group who are developing a specially designed goniometer to use in researching the pathology of the ankle joint (19). This is only mentioned for the sake of completeness and we do not propose to go into any detail about the instrument. There is an excellent article by McKay on ankle injuries in basketball (20) but this is discussed at some length in the section on prophylaxis of injuries. Treatment of injuries The treatment of sports related injuries is a vast topic and specialism in itself. The sports medicine medical specialist and the physiotherapist sports specialist are technically knowledgeable people who have had to assimilate a vast quantity of information relative to their specialisation. It is therefore not proposed to present the topic in any great detail but to cover the elements of treatment of acute injuries and their subsequent treatment that are specifically important to the field of basketball. We will also present a brief literature review of some of the most recent papers in the field. In general terms, the old adage of ICE (immobilisation, compression and elevation) (20b) is a useful first-aid mnemonic which will help to minimise injury prior to assessment by a more specialist professional. In this article it is proposed to look primarily at the aspects of treatment which impinge on the areas covered in this piece and broad overviews. We shall restrict ourselves here to a brief literature review of some of the most important recent papers The area of dental trauma is highlighted in the analysis by Kujalaet al. (1994) (1) with 5.0% of all basketball injuries being dental. Airport by Randall (2005) (21) discusses the impact of dental injuries and suggests that sports field medical personnel should have at least basic training in the first-aid of dental injuries so that they can, at least, provide appropriate care until a dental specialist can be properly involved. A particularly controversial issue is raised by Dietzel and Hedlund(2005) (22) They review the current controversy about the use of analgesic and anti-inflammatory injections both in the acute phase of injury (to allow continued participation in a sporting event) or in the chronic recovery phase. This is a particularly well balanced article which evaluates both sides of the arguments for and against the use of injectable medications. Sanchez et al.(2005) (23) review the desperately important area of management of the potentially spine-injured athlete. This is an area which has had substantial changes in management techniques in the recent past. This paper is a particularly useful review of techniques of diagnosis and stabilisation of the injured athlete. Very significantly it highlights the role of pre-injury planning – so often overlooked – on the sports field. There are two recent papers which examine the thorny problem of concussion on the sports field (24,25). This has long posed a problem for the supervising healthcare specialist, both in terms of immediate diagnosis and subsequent action and treatment. The working â€Å"rule of thumb† has been that any player with definite signs of concussion(impaired consciousness or increased level of confusion) should be taken off the field and not returned to play for 48 hrs. In practice, this advice may be ignored by coaches who are anxious to keep their best players on the field and who may be ignorant of the potential side effects. McKean (24) and Johnston et al. (25) review the arguments in coherent manner and present the current thinking in a modern context. Injury types in relation to position played There are few studies that actually compare the rates and types of injury with actual position played on the court. Given the fact that Kuala, (1) reports that 50% of injuries are sustained in training rather than on the court, this may prove to be rather academic. The study by Meeuwisse (2003) (2), was one of the few that looked at this issue and regarded it as purely peripheral to the main mechanism of injury. However , they summed up the findings of the study in the phrase â€Å"Centres had the highest rate of injury, followed by guards, and then forwards. The relative risk of re-injury was significantly increased by previous injuries to the elbow, shoulder, knee, hand, lower spine or pelvis, and by concussions.† As part of their conclusions the research team commented that the predictive risk factors for injury were, in order of importance: previous injury, number of games played, the number of player contacts during a game, player position, and court location (this is a reference to the proximity to a hospital). In real terms, the players position is of much less importance in predicting injury than many other factors Clinical considerations The clinical implications of basketball injury must be viewed in the context of the benefits derived from playing any competitive sport– or indeed pursuing any degree of fitness. Virtually any sporting endeavour has a downside and indeed risks associated with it, but equally there are very considerable benefits to be gained as well. By concentrating (by necessity) on the risks of injury in basketball in this article we do not wish to ignore the balancing perspective of the health gains to also be derived. Clearly, one of the major benefits to be gained is the concurrent increase in cardiovascular fitness (13) This is in addition to the less easily quantifiable benefits of general fitness, social interaction, increase in self-confidence and satisfaction in participation which are common to most sporting endeavours. The study by Kuala et al. (1993) (13) looked at the incidence of degenerative joint conditions in elite athletes. It found that participation in sports generally could lead to premature osteoarthritis. Specifically it found that, in the elite international athletes studied there was a greater than predicted admission rate to hospital for treatments for osteoarthritis of the hip, knee and ankle. Very significantly, in the context of this article on physiotherapy, it concluded that proper treatment of injuries to these joints could significantly reduce the incidence of premature osteoarthritis in this group. It should be noted that this was a large control moderated study of over 2000 international athletes so the findings are clearly significant Disability and basketball It is important not to ignore the fact that basketball is played, not only by able-bodied sportsmen but also by those who have a concurrent disability as well. This group also presents a professional problem for the physiotherapist as. Not only are there the â€Å"normal â€Å"considerations for the able-bodied player that we have discussed in this piece, but also there may well be disability-specific considerations in the disabled player which will tax the physiotherapist every bit as much as those in their able-bodied counterparts. In consideration of this we would commend the reader to an excellent article by Chula (1994) (26) which discusses inconsiderable depth, the whole issue of sports specific medical considerations for people with a disability. The use of sports for the disabled as a therapeutic measure was championed by Sir Ludwig Guttmann, who was a specialist in spinal injuries. He pointed out not only the obvious physical benefits to be gained in improving functions of the body which the paraplegic ortetraplegic had not fully exploited in their pre-injury state togetherwith the obvious cardiovascular benefits that could be obtained, but healso pointed to the psychological benefits to be gained by socialisingand competing against others. The Disabled Person’s Employment Act (1944) was the first majorlegislative landmark in the effective rehabilitation of the disabledperson back into society and other legislation relating todiscrimination generally has helped the disabled person to achievelevels of attainment in sport that would have been unthinkable half acentury ago. The comments that have been made in this piece in relation toable-bodied people obviously apply, in general terms, to the disabledperson as well. Clearly it depends on the nature of the disability asto what specific measures need to be employed specifically, but thebasic principles are the same. Muscle groups need to be developed inorder to protect the joints that they work over. This is particularlyrelevant to the knee. Appropriate proprioceptive skills need to beenhanced if the risk of injury is to be kept to an acceptable minimum.More specific considerations that may involve the occupationaltherapist as well as the physiotherapist may include the prevention ofpressure problems from a wheelchair or calliper or the use ofrestraints in a patient who has sudden muscular spasms, so that theyare not thrown out of the wheelchair. The experienced physiotherapist will be well aware of the benefitsof sport in the disabled in improving strength, co-ordination andendurance. Basketball, in particular, is commonly employed in thewheelchair-bound patient, who has to learn transferable skills in orderto propel the wheel chair accurately as well as catch, intercept andpass the ball. Prophylaxis and pre-injury actions Earlier in this piece we briefly discussed a paper by Sanchez (23).and commended it for its tackling of the problem of anticipating an injury. This involved a significant amount of pre-planning andorganisation on the court and field of play. Such issues are of vitalimportance to the athletes although they may not either realise orappreciate it at the time. This type of forward thinking can lead to dramatic reductions in morbidity (or even in mortality) and should be the concern of each and every healthcare professional who is working in the field of acute sports injury. Prophylaxis can be considered not only as actual pre-planning thecourse of action needed if an injury is sustained (viz. are theresplints, bandages, sterile water and gloves etc. available?) but equally it can be considered as the correct training and preparation ofboth the players and the game officials, so that the game itself can beplayed in conditions of optimum safety. Although the first of these two considerations is clearly important, in the context of this piece, weshall consider the second element in detail. Prophylaxis of injury is a major concern. We have discussed thepredictive value of a pre-existing injury. It follows that, if thatinjury can be prevented, then the subject is statistically less likelyto suffer a further injury. Common sense is behind the definitive recommendation in the paperby Kuala et al., (1) where he states that, in an attempt to reduce the incidence of injuries in basketball, specific preventative measuresshould be employed to reduce the number of violent contacts betweenplayers. He cites improving the drafting of game rules so that violentinfringements of the rules can be mo Injury Risk in Elite Basketball Players Injury Risk in Elite Basketball Players The elite basketball player is considered in this piece not only in terms of his potential for injury but also in terms of the potential of the physiotherapist and other sports professionals, to give advice, support and guidance so that he may practice his chosen sport as safely as is reasonably possible. We have looked at the nature, incidence and sites of injuries sustained. We have looked at the two most commonly injured sites (the knee and ankle) in specific detail. We have also discussed the relevant modalities of treatment that a physiotherapist can provide for their clients. There appears to be considerable controversy in the current literature, particularly in the field of pre-exercise stretching. As this is commonly accepted practice by participants, coaches, trainers and sports medicine professionals alike, we have reviewed the arguments both for and against in some detail. We have paid particular attention to its value in the prophylaxis of injury and the evidence to support it. The role of the physiotherapist in education and training of the elite athlete is also discussed. There are a number of sources quoted who regard it as a prime responsibility of the physiotherapist to give the athlete the information to allow them to train and participate as safely and effectively as possible. We have also considered the role of the physiotherapist in the prophylaxis of injury by looking at the various modalities of treatment and intervention that can be employed to make the field of play a safer place. In addition to the main-stream elite basketball player we have also looked at the role of the physiotherapist in the role of helping the disabled basketball player, some of whom have achieved elite status in their own right. They have their own specific problems and these are reviewed and discussed. Lastly we look at the specific gender differences in the sport. With many women finding that the sport is attractive, they participate at a top level of achievement. We look at the reasons why they have a different injury profile to men, both in terms of numbers of injuries but also in terms of the frequency of specific types of injury. The mechanisms of this difference is discussed together with the means whereby it can be addressed. Introduction Basketball is a world-wide sport practised by children in their backyard, adolescents in their playground, amateurs in their league games and elite athletes in their world-stage arenas. It is – by any standards – a fast game with inevitable physical contact, both intentional and accidental. Both these factors lead to the potential for injury. The explosive effort for the fast moves leads to particular pattern of muscle, ligament and tendon injury (see on) and the physical contact can lead to bruises, dislocations, fractures another injuries. It is a sport that is enjoyed by both sexes. Although it was originally conceived primarily as a male sport (for the YMCA)in an era when female participation in sport was a rarity, women now participate in it to elite levels and suffer injury to a similar extent to their male counterparts. The game itself has evolved dramatically since its humble beginnings when Dr James Naismith nailed two peach baskets at the ends of his gymnasium in 1891 (hence the name basketball) It was developed as a tool for fitness training by the YMCA. By 1927 The Harlem Globetrotters had been formed and by 1936 it was included as an Olympic sport. According to FIBA (Basketball governing body) over 400 million people play basketball on a world-wide basis Training for the fitness needed to play the sport can also lead touts own problems. One huge study by Ruhr M Kuala et al. (1994) (1) found that of all the injuries associated with basketball, 50% occurred during the matches and 50% occurred during training for the matches. This should be contrasted with the finding in study by Meeuwisse et al.(2) where injuries during the game were 3.7 times as likely to occur as in training. One could reasonably conclude that a large proportion of the injuries sustained in the â€Å"cut and thrust† of a full scale match are part of the risk package accepted in playing the game. The huge proportion of injuries sustained whilst training, however, should be largely preventable, as training should be ideally undertaken in carefully controlled circumstances. The physiotherapist, personal trainer and sports medicine specialist are ideally placed to advise and oversee poor practice in the training arena and to give advice and guidance to maximise training efficiency and to reduce the toll of injury. Any experienced sports care professional will tell you that the single most important factor in determining the likelihood of sustaining an injury is the occurrence of a previous injury (2). It therefore follows that prevention of any injury will help, not only in improving the immediate efficiency of the player, but will also confer protection against the possibility of recurring injury in any given site. Before we consider the mechanisms and prophylaxis of injuries in basketball, it would be prudent to consider the observed injuries from the sport, both in absolute number and site. The study by Meeuwisse(2003) (2) followed a cohort of 142 basketball players over a two year period and discovered that 44.7% of the players were injured in that time frame. As they recorded over 200 injuries in that time, it is clear that many players were injured more than once. The study by Ruhr M Kuala et al. (1994) (1) will be extensively quoted in this piece as it provides an enormous amount of meticulously collected data which has a high degree of confidence in its validity. It was based in Finland where the population has a particularly regimented system of bureaucratic personal information storage, especially with regard to injury and healthcare details. The entire population has to be registered with a nationally based health insurance, which records every accident and injury. This is of enormous value to studies such as this, as accurate statistics about entities such as specific sporting injuries can be derived comparatively easily. The study is also important in this specific regard as it encompasses an enormous cohort of basketball players analysing 39,541person years of basketball experience and 3,472 specific injuries. It’s worth considering the patterns of injury found in some detail as it has an impact on the deliberations in this piece. In terms of age distribution, it was found that injuries in thunder 15 yr. age group were comparatively rare and that the injury rate peaked in the 20 – 24 yr. age groups. Percentage of injuries by sites in basketball players (These results are slightly modified with some trivia removed) Injury Site % of total Lower limb Total 56.0 Thigh 2.5 Knee 15.8 Leg 2.0 Ankle 31.4 Foot 4.0 Other 0.4 Upper Limb total 19.3 Upper arm + Shoulder 2.6 Forearm and elbow 1.3 Palm + wrist Fingers 11.1 Other 0.4 Other Sites Total 24.7 Teeth 5.2 Eyes 3.0 Head + neck 7.4 Thorax + Abdomen 1.5 Back 5.4 Pelvis 0.9 Multiple sites 1.4 There are clearly a number of striking trends in these figures. The lower limbs sustaining the most injuries with 56% of the total. The ankle and knee taking the lion’s share of these. These results are clearly fairly predictable with the nature of the sport being one of sudden changes of acceleration and direction, many changes of direction(pivoting) involving turning forces impinging maximally on the knee and ankle. Both joints are intrinsically unstable for these modalities of movements. They are designed to be most effective in walking and running in a straight line. Although they can accommodate twisting movements, they are much less mechanically sound in these directions. The possibility of unanticipated, and therefore unraced, impacts is endemic in the sport and will increase the possibility of injury to these joins in particular. The upper limb has a substantial tally of injuries with the bulk being to the palm, wrist and fingers. Although it is not specified in this particular study, any experienced clinician would expect to see substantial proportion of hyperextensions and dislocations to the fingers and sprains and strains to the wrist (this is partially amplified in the next section). For a sport that involves considerable manipulative and throwing skills, it is, perhaps, surprising that the shoulder and upper arm account for only 2.6% of all the injuries. In contrast to the comments made about the knee and ankle, one can postulate that the shoulder, by virtue of its design to accommodate a much greater range and compass of movement, is less likely to be injured in the way that the knee and ankle are. Also, in the course of the normal game, it is subject to rather less overall mechanical force as both the knee and ankle have to assimilate peak loads of several times the body weight whereas the shoulder, unless involved in a fall, does not. Of the â€Å"Other Sites†, the neck and back are the commonest sites for injury. To a large extent, this again is a reflection of the explosive nature of the game with frequent changes of direction and velocity with high levels of acceleration. Having recognised the major sites of injury it is now prudent to discuss the main types of injury. Percentage injury by type in basketball players (These results are slightly modified with some trivia removed) Injury type + site % of total Sprains +strains 61.3 Knee 12.4 Ankle 29.5 Bruises + Wounds 22.2 Fractures 12.6 Fracture (other than dental) 7.6 Foot + ankle 18.5 Lower limb (other) 3.8 Fingers Palm + wrist 57.0 Upper limb (other) 4.2 Other (nondental) 16.6 Dental 4.9 Dislocations 1.7 Knee 0.5 Shoulder + elbow 0.3 Fingers 0.3 Others 2.2 Sprains and strains are the commonest type of injury in this sport with the ankle being the most frequently injured site in this respect. Considerable amounts of work and research have been done(2,3,4,5,6,7,8) to try to find mechanisms whereby ankle injuries can beat least reduced in both frequency and severity. This will be discussed in detail later. Knee strains and sprains are the next most frequent at12.4%. Similar amounts of work have been done to find ways of minimising knee injuries (9,10,11). The knee injury is notorious for producing long-term debilitating problems as not only is the acute injury painful and potentially debilitating in itself, but there is also the potential for Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) damage and meniscal damage and wear as well. This may not be immediately apparent but may contribute to morbidity at a later date. This study (1) found that knee injuries were the most common cause of permanent disability In the longer term. During the time frame of this study, four basketball players sustained permanent injuries. In specific relation to knee and ankle injury, the Meiuwess study(2) found that the situation can be further amplified by the finding that the greatest number of injuries which resulted in seven or more sessions being lost in a season arose from the knee. Equally striking was the fact that the most common injury that involved less than seven sessions being lost, were injuries to the ankle. This underlines the comment made earlier that knee injuries tend to be potentially more serious than ankle injuries Bruises and wounds account for over 1/5th of the total types of injury and fractures account for just over 1/10th. In line with the comments made earlier about the frequency of hand, finger and wrist injury, it will come as no surprise therefore to see that the hand and wrist accounts for over half of the total of fractures. The foot and ankle account for 18.5% of total fractures. This is a reversal of the figures relating to site of injury. It would therefore appear that the hand gets injured less frequently that the foot, but when it does, it’s more likely to sustain the more serious (fracture) type of injury. Although the foot is more likely to be injured, it is more likely to suffer a strain or sprain rather than a fracture. In the study by Home et al.,(2004) (12) There was an unexpected, and slightly worrying, conclusion. They found that, in a study of fractures in sport, that (for men at least) basketball was the sport that put the participants at greatest risk of sustaining a fracture. The Knee and Basketball As we have already discussed, a knee injury is potentially more serious than just the implication of the immediate acute injury. For that reason, and for the fact that it is one of the two most commonly injured areas, we will look at the knee as a specific entity. We know that the single most important predictor for further injury is the past history of a preceding original injury. The knee is also significant insofar as the normal maxim of rest a joint until the inflammation has settled is rarely practical, as the knee is essential for locomotion and, as any experienced clinician knows, the vast majority of patients with resolving knee injuries will wait until the pain subsides to a tolerable level, and then start to walk on it. This effectively means that the joint is being stressed while resolving inflammation is present. Initially this may manifest itself as no more than a mildly aching knee, but it is likely that menisci, cruciate ligaments and articular surfaces are all being stressed in a â€Å"less than optimal† state. It is likely, on a first principles basis, that this type of mechanism may be, in part at least, responsible for the increased levels of arthritis and arthritis that is observed in lifelong athletes. (13,14) The paper by Meeuwisse (2) has been quoted several times in this piece. It is worth remembering that his team found that the knee waste joint which, if injured, gave rise to the longest periods of incapacity. It is therefore prudent to consider the mechanisms of injury, the treatment of those injuries and, possibly more importantly in the context of this piece, what can be done to minimise the incidence and impact of those injuries. We would commend an excellent paper by Bahr (2001) (3) on the subject. He discusses (amongst other things) the current thinking on knee injuries. He makes comment on the increasing incidence of cruciate ligament injuries. These injuries are seen with greatest frequency in athletes who participate in sports that involve â€Å"pivoting† – a movement which involves a fixed foot on the floor being used as a fulcrum topspin the body around – a movement which can put huge rotational stresses on the knee joint. As has been observed earlier in this piece, the knee is designed primarily to be efficient in dealing with movement in a sagittal plane. It is very poorly adapted to deal with rotational stresses. Bahr observes that the maximal incidence of cruciate ligament injury is in the 15-25 yr. old age group and in women three to five times more frequently than in men (see on) (14). He also refers to the post-injury, long-term complications of abnormal joint mechanics and the early onset of degenerative joint disease (15). Significantly he points to the fact that, although there has been an increasing trend recently (mainly because of improved operating techniques) to attempt to repair menisci and cruciate ligaments, this has not been accompanied by an apparent reduction in the rate of post-traumatic osteoarthritis. Similarly, arthroscopic repair of isolated meniscal damage has not been shown to reduce the incidence of arthritis. These factors all mitigate the argument that, although treatment is important, the identification of risk factors that predispose to injury is even more important. The Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) is commonly injured in circumstances that many athletes would consider as normal or routine for their particular sport. Frequently the damage occurs without direct physical contact to the knee (9). This is strong evidence to support the â€Å"design fault† explanation of the aetiology. There is recent anecdotal data to suggest that improving the control of the knee may have an impact in reducing the incidence of these injuries. This views supported in a paper by Carafe (10) who looked at improving the proprioceptive and balance mechanisms in footballers over a three season period. They reported an 87% decrease in the incidence of injuries to the ACL. It may be significant that they studied semi-professional and amateur footballers who, presumably, did not train as efficiently of as skilfully as their professional footballer counterparts and therefore there was probably considerable room for improvement. Similarly constructed studies have shown similar pattern of improvement in young female football (11) and handball (16) players using a similar programme of training over a season. As has been pointed out earlier, such changes are more likely to be noticeable in females because of the higher incidence of ACL injury in the first place. Bahr points out that these studies were too small to allow a proper statistical evaluation of the reduction of injury to the ACL specifically, but there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the risk of serious knee injury can be significantly reduced by the introduction of structured training exercises that focus on improving the neuron-muscular control of the knee. Bahr makes the very salient point that balance (proprioceptive)training is not yet universally recognised by coaches and trainers as useful tool. As a result, he argues that it is the responsibility of doctors and physiotherapists to disseminate the knowledge that such training does reduce the incidence of serious short-term (and therefore long-term) knee injury. Anterior knee pain is a common, sometimes chronic presenting symptom in any sports related health professional’s clinic. There are many theories as to its aetiology and it is notoriously resistant to treatment. An unattributed paper (quoted by Minerva in the BMJ) (17)refers to Jumper’s knee where the pain is maximal near the attachment of the patella ligament. Ultrasound of the region can show an area of increased echogenicity in the inferior pole of the patella. Minerva quotes the study as observing that of 100 athletes seen in one clinic,18 had to give up their sport for over a year and about 1/3rd needed surgery in order to try to get resolution of the problem. In conclusion to this section we would refer the reader to the excellent paper by Adams WB (2004) (18) who reviews the current thinking on treatment options on both overuse syndromes and trauma tithe knee. The Ankle and Basketball As we have seen earlier, the ankle is the single most commonly injured site in the body during basketball comprising 31.4% of all the injuries observed (1) and ankle strains and sprains were the single commonest mechanism of injury observed with 1/3rd of all such injuries and 1/5th of all fractures. We will therefore also consider the ankles a special case. Bahr (3) quotes that in round figures 20% of sports related injuries involve the ankle. The vast majority of ankle injuries are simple sprains of the lateral and medial ankle ligaments. Proper functional care will allow the patient to return to work within a few days, or at worst a few weeks, with minimal squeal. Some sprains are found to cause prolonged disability in the form of chronic instability or persistent pain. Prophylaxis of injury is discussed elsewhere in this piece but it should be noted that taping and bracing are commonly employed techniques for protection, but their efficacy has only been demonstrated in sportsmen with a history of previous injury (5,6).There is little doubt that taping and bracing will reduce the incidence of sprains and result in less severe strains. â€Å"High-top† basketball boots have been introduced recently on the assumption that similar boots (18a) (viz. ski boots) reduce the incidence of ankle injury, but it has not yet produced any specific evidence that sprains and strains are reduced. Braces seen to be more effective than tape in preventing sprains of the ankle (7,8) Bracing has the advantage that it is more acceptable in terms of comfort for long-term use (6). Taping is commonly used but appears to be less effective than braces because it relies on adhesion to the skin to exert its protective influence. It can cause skin irritation and has to be reapplied on virtually every occasion where potential stress can occur. One of the major problems of doing research into ankle injuries is that qualitative and subjective measurements such as pain and immobility can be easily assessed, but the ankle joint is a very functionally complex structure and quantitative measurements of anything other than flexion/extension or rotation an very difficult. Its therefore heartening to read of a Dutch group who are developing a specially designed goniometer to use in researching the pathology of the ankle joint (19). This is only mentioned for the sake of completeness and we do not propose to go into any detail about the instrument. There is an excellent article by McKay on ankle injuries in basketball (20) but this is discussed at some length in the section on prophylaxis of injuries. Treatment of injuries The treatment of sports related injuries is a vast topic and specialism in itself. The sports medicine medical specialist and the physiotherapist sports specialist are technically knowledgeable people who have had to assimilate a vast quantity of information relative to their specialisation. It is therefore not proposed to present the topic in any great detail but to cover the elements of treatment of acute injuries and their subsequent treatment that are specifically important to the field of basketball. We will also present a brief literature review of some of the most recent papers in the field. In general terms, the old adage of ICE (immobilisation, compression and elevation) (20b) is a useful first-aid mnemonic which will help to minimise injury prior to assessment by a more specialist professional. In this article it is proposed to look primarily at the aspects of treatment which impinge on the areas covered in this piece and broad overviews. We shall restrict ourselves here to a brief literature review of some of the most important recent papers The area of dental trauma is highlighted in the analysis by Kujalaet al. (1994) (1) with 5.0% of all basketball injuries being dental. Airport by Randall (2005) (21) discusses the impact of dental injuries and suggests that sports field medical personnel should have at least basic training in the first-aid of dental injuries so that they can, at least, provide appropriate care until a dental specialist can be properly involved. A particularly controversial issue is raised by Dietzel and Hedlund(2005) (22) They review the current controversy about the use of analgesic and anti-inflammatory injections both in the acute phase of injury (to allow continued participation in a sporting event) or in the chronic recovery phase. This is a particularly well balanced article which evaluates both sides of the arguments for and against the use of injectable medications. Sanchez et al.(2005) (23) review the desperately important area of management of the potentially spine-injured athlete. This is an area which has had substantial changes in management techniques in the recent past. This paper is a particularly useful review of techniques of diagnosis and stabilisation of the injured athlete. Very significantly it highlights the role of pre-injury planning – so often overlooked – on the sports field. There are two recent papers which examine the thorny problem of concussion on the sports field (24,25). This has long posed a problem for the supervising healthcare specialist, both in terms of immediate diagnosis and subsequent action and treatment. The working â€Å"rule of thumb† has been that any player with definite signs of concussion(impaired consciousness or increased level of confusion) should be taken off the field and not returned to play for 48 hrs. In practice, this advice may be ignored by coaches who are anxious to keep their best players on the field and who may be ignorant of the potential side effects. McKean (24) and Johnston et al. (25) review the arguments in coherent manner and present the current thinking in a modern context. Injury types in relation to position played There are few studies that actually compare the rates and types of injury with actual position played on the court. Given the fact that Kuala, (1) reports that 50% of injuries are sustained in training rather than on the court, this may prove to be rather academic. The study by Meeuwisse (2003) (2), was one of the few that looked at this issue and regarded it as purely peripheral to the main mechanism of injury. However , they summed up the findings of the study in the phrase â€Å"Centres had the highest rate of injury, followed by guards, and then forwards. The relative risk of re-injury was significantly increased by previous injuries to the elbow, shoulder, knee, hand, lower spine or pelvis, and by concussions.† As part of their conclusions the research team commented that the predictive risk factors for injury were, in order of importance: previous injury, number of games played, the number of player contacts during a game, player position, and court location (this is a reference to the proximity to a hospital). In real terms, the players position is of much less importance in predicting injury than many other factors Clinical considerations The clinical implications of basketball injury must be viewed in the context of the benefits derived from playing any competitive sport– or indeed pursuing any degree of fitness. Virtually any sporting endeavour has a downside and indeed risks associated with it, but equally there are very considerable benefits to be gained as well. By concentrating (by necessity) on the risks of injury in basketball in this article we do not wish to ignore the balancing perspective of the health gains to also be derived. Clearly, one of the major benefits to be gained is the concurrent increase in cardiovascular fitness (13) This is in addition to the less easily quantifiable benefits of general fitness, social interaction, increase in self-confidence and satisfaction in participation which are common to most sporting endeavours. The study by Kuala et al. (1993) (13) looked at the incidence of degenerative joint conditions in elite athletes. It found that participation in sports generally could lead to premature osteoarthritis. Specifically it found that, in the elite international athletes studied there was a greater than predicted admission rate to hospital for treatments for osteoarthritis of the hip, knee and ankle. Very significantly, in the context of this article on physiotherapy, it concluded that proper treatment of injuries to these joints could significantly reduce the incidence of premature osteoarthritis in this group. It should be noted that this was a large control moderated study of over 2000 international athletes so the findings are clearly significant Disability and basketball It is important not to ignore the fact that basketball is played, not only by able-bodied sportsmen but also by those who have a concurrent disability as well. This group also presents a professional problem for the physiotherapist as. Not only are there the â€Å"normal â€Å"considerations for the able-bodied player that we have discussed in this piece, but also there may well be disability-specific considerations in the disabled player which will tax the physiotherapist every bit as much as those in their able-bodied counterparts. In consideration of this we would commend the reader to an excellent article by Chula (1994) (26) which discusses inconsiderable depth, the whole issue of sports specific medical considerations for people with a disability. The use of sports for the disabled as a therapeutic measure was championed by Sir Ludwig Guttmann, who was a specialist in spinal injuries. He pointed out not only the obvious physical benefits to be gained in improving functions of the body which the paraplegic ortetraplegic had not fully exploited in their pre-injury state togetherwith the obvious cardiovascular benefits that could be obtained, but healso pointed to the psychological benefits to be gained by socialisingand competing against others. The Disabled Person’s Employment Act (1944) was the first majorlegislative landmark in the effective rehabilitation of the disabledperson back into society and other legislation relating todiscrimination generally has helped the disabled person to achievelevels of attainment in sport that would have been unthinkable half acentury ago. The comments that have been made in this piece in relation toable-bodied people obviously apply, in general terms, to the disabledperson as well. Clearly it depends on the nature of the disability asto what specific measures need to be employed specifically, but thebasic principles are the same. Muscle groups need to be developed inorder to protect the joints that they work over. This is particularlyrelevant to the knee. Appropriate proprioceptive skills need to beenhanced if the risk of injury is to be kept to an acceptable minimum.More specific considerations that may involve the occupationaltherapist as well as the physiotherapist may include the prevention ofpressure problems from a wheelchair or calliper or the use ofrestraints in a patient who has sudden muscular spasms, so that theyare not thrown out of the wheelchair. The experienced physiotherapist will be well aware of the benefitsof sport in the disabled in improving strength, co-ordination andendurance. Basketball, in particular, is commonly employed in thewheelchair-bound patient, who has to learn transferable skills in orderto propel the wheel chair accurately as well as catch, intercept andpass the ball. Prophylaxis and pre-injury actions Earlier in this piece we briefly discussed a paper by Sanchez (23).and commended it for its tackling of the problem of anticipating an injury. This involved a significant amount of pre-planning andorganisation on the court and field of play. Such issues are of vitalimportance to the athletes although they may not either realise orappreciate it at the time. This type of forward thinking can lead to dramatic reductions in morbidity (or even in mortality) and should be the concern of each and every healthcare professional who is working in the field of acute sports injury. Prophylaxis can be considered not only as actual pre-planning thecourse of action needed if an injury is sustained (viz. are theresplints, bandages, sterile water and gloves etc. available?) but equally it can be considered as the correct training and preparation ofboth the players and the game officials, so that the game itself can beplayed in conditions of optimum safety. Although the first of these two considerations is clearly important, in the context of this piece, weshall consider the second element in detail. Prophylaxis of injury is a major concern. We have discussed thepredictive value of a pre-existing injury. It follows that, if thatinjury can be prevented, then the subject is statistically less likelyto suffer a further injury. Common sense is behind the definitive recommendation in the paperby Kuala et al., (1) where he states that, in an attempt to reduce the incidence of injuries in basketball, specific preventative measuresshould be employed to reduce the number of violent contacts betweenplayers. He cites improving the drafting of game rules so that violentinfringements of the rules can be mo